Karen E. Gerdes

TEACHING EMPATHY: A FRAMEWORK ROOTED IN SOCIAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

We propose that a targeted and structured explication of empathy is a useful, if not essential, foundation for social work theory and practice. We outline a social work framework for empathy, one that is rooted in an interdisciplinary context, emphasizes recent findings in the field of social cognitive neuroscience, and yet is embedded in a social work context. The framework lends itself to identifiable education components that social work educators can implement across the curriculum. We can help students understand the basic process of neural path-way development that determines their affective empathic responses and develop and maintain cognitive empathic abilities. In addition, students can learn to use their knowledge, values, and skills, informed by empathy, to take empathic action consciously.

Empathy, Sympathy, and Pity: 21st-Century Definitions and Implications for Practice and Research

ABSTRACT Empathy is prominent wherever humans attempt to create more just and compassionate social structures, and cultivating empathy is critical to being an effective social worker. This article outlines the historical semantic evolution of empathy, sympathy, and pity. Careful attention needs to be given to avoid conflating these concepts. If used improperly, the results can range from counterproductive outreach efforts to emotional and physical burnout. Clear and precise definitions of the three terms are provided and incorporate concepts taken from 21st-century social-cognitive neuroscience. This epistemological foundation can help to better define this concept to facilitate research and avoid biased emotional reactions. Implications for future social work practice and research are discussed.

Using Cooperative Learning Strategies in Social Work Education.

Cooperative learning strategies employ formally structured groups of students working together to maximize their own and other students’ learning. This educational approach changes the classroom environment from one in which students are passive recipients of the instructor’s knowledge, to one in which they are active participants in their own education. Cooperative learning strategies have received little attention in the social work education literature, despite proven educational benefits elsewhere. This article defines cooperative learning, reviews the educational theory and research that support it, demonstrates its relevance to social work education, and provides case examples for use throughout the social work curriculum.

The Empathy Assessment Index (EAI): A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of a Multidimensional Model of Empathy

Both historically and currently, social work and related fields have expressed considerable interest in the construct of empathy. However, the ability to define and ultimately measure empathy is limited. This project validates a revised version of the Empathy Assessment Index (EAI), which is a measure rooted in a social cognitive neuroscience conceptualization of empathy. To evaluate the instrument’s psychometric properties, we administered the 50-item EAI with a five-component model of empathy to a sample of 773 undergraduate students and community members. We evaluate the EAI psychometrics conducting internal consistency, testretest, and confirmatory factor analyses. Findings indicate that a 17-item five-factor model of the EAI offers the best fit [CFI = .98; RMSEA = .04 (90% CI (.03; .05); WRMR = .80]. The data do not support using empathic attitudes as a proxy for actions; however, the findings suggest the EAI functions better when measuring a fourfactor model, offering an important implication for future research.

Evaluating Teaching: Listening to Students while Acknowledging Bias.

Despite questions about their reliability and validity, student evaluations of teaching (SETs) are a primary measure of instructor performance. The current study examines SETs, including a thorough list of potentially relevant variables. The findings suggest that how much students perceive they learned in a course is an important predictor of SET scores. Further, a number of variables outside of the instructors control appear to introduce bias into SETs. Nonetheless, social work norms imply the necessity of seeking input from students. Suggestions are given for possible methods of dealing with this dilemma, and for needed future research.

Social Empathy Attitudes: Do Latino Students Have More?

This article reports on the “social empathy attitudes” results that were part of a larger study on empathy in college students at a large research university in the Southwest. Two hundred ninety-four students completed the Social Empathy Assessment Index (SEAI). The research hypothesis was that students of color would have higher levels of social empathy attitudes than Caucasian students. The statistically significant SEAI items suggested that Latino students identify as more collectivist and more optimistic and have higher levels of social empathy attitudes. Latinos may be more willing to help a stranger than either Caucasians or members of other racial groups.

Using Structured Controversy to Teach Diversity Content and Cultural Competence

Abstract Structured controversy is one type of cooperative learning strategy. It involves students in researching positions on topics and then debating each other. A unique aspect of this strategy is that students then reverse sides and argue the other position. This paper discusses the use of the structured controversy process to teach diversity content in the classroom. It addresses the advantages and barriers to using structured controversy, and identifies ways in which structured controversy can be used in the social work curriculum to teach cultural competence. The article also reports on an evaluation of the structured controversy process that was used in BSW and MSW classrooms. The findings from this evaluation suggest that structured controversy is an extremely useful technique for teaching diversity and cultural competence. The vast majority of students reported increased knowledge about and sensitivity to the concerns of people from diverse backgrounds.

Student Evaluations of Teaching: How You Teach and Who You Are

Abstract Student evaluations of teaching (SETs) have become an important measure of the quality of teaching in higher education institutions in the United States. Some research indicates that SETs may be systematically biased; however, most studies of SETs do not include much measure of instructional choices teachers make.This study includes most variables the SET literature identifies as important and also adds measures of teacher choices, such as whether to use instructional technologies and what percent of time to spend lecturing.The results provide some useful information about how better to connect with students but also indicate that SETs are systematically biased against female teachers, older teachers, and perhaps minority teachers.These findings call into question de facto higher education policy making SETs our most important measure of teaching quality.

Treatment of prostitution using integrative therapy techniques: A case study

This case study examines a pattern we believe to be common among female prostitutes: a woman (“Bonnie”) who, like most prostitutes, is a survivor of childhood sexual abuse. Bonnies prostitution is part of the unconscious ‘repetition compulsion’ common in trauma victims; by prostituting herself, Bonnie re-creates the scenario of sexual abuse that occurred during her childhood, while maintaining an illusion of control over the situation. We maintain that an effective approach to treatment for Bonnie is integrative therapy, a type of psychological counseling designed to address the major aftereffects of sexual abuse: dissociation from the body and sexuality in general; a profound sense of powerlessness; critically low valuation of the self; and mistrust and fear of intimacy. Bonnies story shows the dynamics of both prostitute behavior and integrative therapy, providing an example we believe to be applicable far beyond this case study.

The Grassroots Londolozi Model of African Development: Social Empathy in Action

Aid efforts in Africa often fail, sometimes increasing the very problems they are meant to ease. A grassroots effort we call the Londolozi model is bringing local South Africans out of poverty by restoring their homelands ecosystem. Based on principles of social empathy to develop local ecotourism, the model demonstrates how it is possible to generate a small, medium, and micro-enterprise economy that creates jobs for the local community. In addition, the Londolozi learning center and the private, not-for-profit Good Work Foundation have worked in partnership with the local community to offer adult literacy training, educational opportunities for children and youth, AIDS education, and other sustainable services necessary to end poverty. The basic precepts of the Londolozi model and principles of social empathy can be used to promote social development in other parts of Africa, as well as in other regions of the world.