Karen Reivich

Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions

Positive education is defined as education for both traditional skills and for happiness. The high prevalence worldwide of depression among young people, the small rise in life satisfaction, and the synergy between learning and positive emotion all argue that the skills for happiness should be taught in school. There is substantial evidence from well controlled studies that skills that increase resilience, positive emotion, engagement and meaning can be taught to schoolchildren. We present the story of teaching these skills to an entire school—Geelong Grammar School—in Australia, and we speculate that positive education will form the basis of a ‘new prosperity’, a politics that values both wealth and well‐being.

School-Based Prevention of Depressive Symptoms: A Randomized Controlled Study of the Effectiveness and Specificity of the Penn Resiliency Program

The authors investigated the effectiveness and specificity of the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP; J. E. Gillham, L. H. Jaycox, K. J. Reivich, M. E. P. Seligman, & T. Silver, 1990), a cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program. Children (N = 697) from 3 middle schools were randomly assigned to PRP, Control (CON), or the Penn Enhancement Program (PEP; K. J. Reivich, 1996; A. J. Shatté, 1997), an alternate intervention that controls for nonspecific intervention ingredients. Childrens depressive symptoms were assessed through 3 years of follow-up. There was no intervention effect on average levels of depressive symptoms in the full sample. Findings varied by school. In 2 schools, PRP significantly reduced depressive symptoms across the follow-up relative to both CON and PEP. In the 3rd school, PRP did not prevent depressive symptoms. The authors discuss the findings in relation to previous research on PRP and the dissemination of prevention programs.

Character strengths predict subjective well-being during adolescence

Previous research indicates that several character strengths (e.g., gratitude, optimism, persistence, and self-regulation) correlate positively with measures of subjective well-being in adolescents. We examined whether character strengths predict future well-being. Adolescent high school students (N = 149) completed the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths for Youth and measures of subjective well-being (depression, happiness, life satisfaction) at several assessments from the fall of 9th grade through the spring of their 10th grade year. In analyses controlling for the effects of other strengths, other-directed strengths (e.g., kindness, teamwork) predicted fewer symptoms of depression. Transcendence strengths (e.g., meaning, love) predicted greater life satisfaction. Social support partially mediated the relationship between strengths and depression, but did not mediate the relationship between strengths and life satisfaction. These findings indicate that strengths that build connections to people and purposes larger than the self predict future well-being.

Cultivating Optimism in Childhood and Adolescence

How do optimism and hope develop in young people? How can they be promoted? This article reviews research on the development of optimism and hope and interventions designed to build these qualities in youth. The Penn Resiliency Program is discussed as an example of a school-based intervention that may promote hope and prevent symptoms of depression and anxiety. Limits of existing studies and directions for future research are also discussed.

Prevention of Depressive Symptoms in Schoolchildren: A Research Update

Recent research suggests that cognitive vulnerabilities implicated in adult depression are relevant to depression in children, at least by middle childhood. For example, a pessimistic explanatory style is associated with depressive symptoms in children and has been found to predict depressive symptoms in some studies (for reviews, see Gladstone & Kaslow, 1995; Joiner & Wagner, 1995). Intervention programs that target these cognitive vulnerabilities are effective in treating and preventing depression symptoms and episodes (Clarke et al., 1995; Gillham, Reivich, Jaycox, & Seligman, 1995; Lewinsohn, Clarke, & Rohde, 1994). Clarke and colleagues found a prevention effect that lasted through 12 months of follow-up. Little is known about the even longer-term benefits of such programs. Do children who participate in these programs continue to benefit throughout their school years, or do the effects dissolve with time? In 1995, we reported long-term follow-up results of a school-based program designed to prevent depressive symptoms (Gillham et al., 1995). In this study, 69 fifth and sixth graders who participated in the prevention group were compared with a control group of 49 children. The children completed an assessment battery that included the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) and the Children’s Attributional Style Questionnaire (CASQ; Kaslow, Tannenbaum, & Seligman, 1978) before the program, following the program, and every 6 months thereafter for 2 years. The prevention group reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms throughout the 2-year follow-up period. Children in the prevention group were also less likely to report moderate to severe symptoms. Explanatory-style scores became more optimistic in the prevention group, and there was evidence that improvements in explanatory style, in part, mediated the program’s effect on depressive symptoms. We have since completed our final follow-up. Sixty-nine of these children (37 from the prevention group and 32 from the control group) completed questionnaires 2 1/2 years after the program, and 67 children (40 from the prevention group and 27 from the control group) completed questionnaires at the 3-year follow-up. To examine the possibility of differential attrition, we ran a series of analyses comparing prevention- and control-group children who left the study on demographic variables and questionnaire scores obtained at baseline. No significant differences were found. Our results indicate the prevention program’s effect on explanatory

Depression Prevention for Early Adolescent Girls: A Pilot Study of All Girls Versus Co-Ed Groups.

Given the dramatic increase in depression that occurs during early adolescence in girls, interventions must address the needs of girls. The authors examined whether a depression prevention program, the Penn Resiliency Program, was more effective for girls in all-girls groups than in co-ed groups. Within co-ed groups, the authors also tested whether there were greater effects for boys than for girls. Participants were 20811-to 14-year-olds. Girls were randomly assigned to all-girls groups, co-ed groups, or control. Boys were assigned to co-ed groups or control. Students completed questionnaires on depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and explanatory style before and after the intervention. Girls groups were better than co-ed groups in reducing girls’ hopelessness and for session attendance rates but were similar to co-ed groups in reducing depressive symptoms. Co-ed groups decreased depressive symptoms, but this did not differ by gender. Findings support prevention programs and suggest additional benefits of girls groups.

From Helplessness to Optimism: The Role of Resilience in Treating and Preventing Depression in Youth

Some of the most common psychological disorders in children and adolescents are internalizing disorders such as depression and anxiety. Research on the development of depression and anxiety suggests that internalizing disorders can be reduced, even prevented, by promoting more accurate cognitive styles, problem-solving skills, and supportive family relationships. Several cognitive–behavioral interventions have shown promise in treating and preventing depression and anxiety. We review the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP) as an example of such an intervention. We suggest that most of the skills covered in the PRP and similar preventive interventions are not specific to depression or anxiety and can be useful for increasing young people’s resiliency more generally. Interventions that teach and reinforce these skills can help children to navigate a variety of difficult situations they are likely to encounter during adolescence and adulthood.

Preventing Co-Occurring Depression Symptoms in Adolescents with Conduct Problems The Penn Resiliency Program

Abstract:  Children who exhibit elevated levels of conduct problems are at increased risk for developing co‐occurring depression symptoms, especially during adolescence. This study tests the effectiveness of a manualized after school intervention (the Penn Resiliency Program [PRP]) for the prevention of depression symptoms among a subset of middle‐school‐aged students who exhibited elevated levels of conduct problems, but not depression symptoms, at the start of the study. Longitudinal analyses demonstrate that the program successfully prevented elevations in depression symptoms across early‐ to mid‐adolescence compared to no‐intervention controls.

Evaluation of a group cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program for young adolescents: a randomized effectiveness trial.

Depression is a common psychological problem in adolescence. Recent research suggests that group cognitive-behavioral interventions can reduce and prevent symptoms of depression in youth. Few studies have tested the effectiveness of such interventions when delivered by school teachers and counselors (as opposed to research team staff). We evaluated the effectiveness of the Penn Resiliency Program for adolescents (PRP-A), a school-based group intervention that targets cognitive behavioral risk factors for depression. We randomly assigned 408 middle school students (ages 10–15) to one of three conditions: PRP-A, PRP-AP (in which adolescents participated in PRP-A and parents were invited to attend a parent intervention component), or a school-as-usual control. Adolescents completed measures of depression and anxiety symptoms, cognitive style, and coping at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at 6-month follow-up. PRP-A reduced depression symptoms relative to the school as usual control. Baseline levels of hopelessness moderated intervention effects. Among participants with average and high levels of hopelessness, PRP (A and AP) significantly improved depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, hopelessness, and active coping relative to control. Among participants with low baseline hopelessness, we found no intervention effects. PRP-AP was not more effective than PRP-A alone. We found no intervention effects on clinical levels of depression or anxiety. These findings suggest that cognitive-behavioral interventions can be beneficial when delivered by school teachers and counselors. These interventions may be most helpful to students with elevated hopelessness.

From Helplessness to Optimism

Some of the most common psychological disorders in children and adolescents are internalizing disorders such as depression and anxiety. Research on the development of depression and anxiety suggests that internalizing disorders can be reduced, even prevented, by promoting more accurate cognitive styles, problem-solving skills, and supportive family relationships. Several cognitive-behavioral interventions have shown promise in treating and preventing depression and anxiety. We review the Penn Resiliency Program as an example of such an intervention. We suggest that most of the skills covered in the Penn Resiliency Program and similar preventive interventions are not specific to depression or anxiety and can be useful for increasing young people’s resiliency more generally. Interventions that teach and reinforce these skills can help children to navigate a variety of difficult situations they are likely to encounter during adolescence and adulthood.