Kasey Lynn Morris

Improving the efficacy of appearance-based sun exposure interventions with the terror management health model

The terror management health model (TMHM) suggests that when thoughts of death are accessible people become increasingly motivated to bolster their self-esteem relative to their health, because doing so offers psychological protection against mortality concerns. Two studies examined sun protection intentions as a function of mortality reminders and an appearance-based intervention. In Study 1, participants given a sun protection message that primed mortality and shown a UV-filtered photo of their face reported greater intentions to use sun protection on their face, and took more sunscreen samples than participants shown a regular photo of their face. In Study 2, reminders of mortality increased participants’ intentions to use facial sun protection when the UV photo was specifically framed as revealing appearance consequences of tanning, compared to when the photo was framed as revealing health consequences or when no photo was shown. These findings extend the TMHM, and provide preliminary evidence that appearance-based tanning interventions have a greater influence on sun protection intentions under conditions that prime thoughts of death. We discuss implications of the findings, and highlight the need for additional research examining the applicability to long-term tanning behaviour.

Trio of terror (pregnancy, menstruation, and breastfeeding): An existential function of literal self-objectification among women.

Research and theorizing suggest that objectification entails perceiving a person not as a human being but, quite literally, as an object. However, the motive to regard the self as an object is not well understood. The current research tested the hypothesis that literal self-objectification can serve a terror management function. From this perspective, the female body poses a unique existential threat on account of its role in reproduction, and regarding the self as an object is posited to shield women from this threat because objects, in contrast to humans, are not mortal. Across 5 studies, 3 operationalizations of literal self-objectification were employed (a denial of essentially human traits to the self, overlap in the explicit assignment of traits to the self and objects, and implicit associations between self and objects using an implicit association test) in response to 3 aspects of womens bodies involved in reproduction (pregnancy, menstruation, and breastfeeding). In each study, priming mortality led women (but not men, included in Studies 1, 3, 4, and 5) to literally self-objectify in conditions where womens reproductive features were salient. In addition, literal self-objectification was found to mediate subsequent responsiveness to death-related stimuli (Study 4). Together, these findings are the first to demonstrate a direct link between mortality salience, womens role in reproduction, and their self-objectification, supporting an existential function of self-objectification in women.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Sun Safety

Overexposure to the sun is associated with an increased risk of melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer, but indications of improvements in sun protection behavior are poor. Attempts to identify emerging themes in skin cancer control have largely been driven by groups of experts from a single field. In December 2016, 19 experts from various disciplines convened for Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Skin Cancer, a 2-day meeting hosted by the National Academy of Sciences. The group discussed knowledge gaps, perspectives on sun exposure, implications for skin cancer risk and other health outcomes, and new directions. Five themes emerged from the discussion: (1) The definition of risk must be expanded, and categories for skin physiology must be refined to incorporate population diversities. (2) Risky sun exposure often co-occurs with other health-related behaviors. (3) Messages must be nuanced to target at-risk populations. (4) Persons at risk for tanning disorder must be recognized and treated. (5) Sun safety interventions must be scalable. Efficient use of technologies will be required to sharpen messages to specific populations and to integrate them within multilevel interventions. Further interdisciplinary research should address these emerging themes to build effective and sustainable approaches to large-scale behavior change.

Objectification as Self-affirmation in the Context of a Death-relevant Health Threat

Messages highlighting the risk of unhealthy behaviors threaten the self and can prompt a defensive response. From the perspective of self-affirmation theory, affirming an important value in a domain unrelated to the threat can reduce this defensiveness. Integrating terror management and objectification theory, this study examined objectification as a type of self-affirmation for women who highly value their appearance (i.e., high self-objectifiers) in the context of reactions towards a health message priming the association between breast cancer and death, and promoting the role of breast self-exams as an effective intervention. Self-objectification was found to moderate breast self-exam intentions and reactions to a BSE brochure when women were exposed to an objectifying image in the context of the death-relevant health threat. These findings show that for some women, objectification may provide the psychological fortitude necessary to actively confront threats to the self, and health, and may help to explain the pervasiveness of the phenomena.

Women as Animals, Women as Objects: Evidence for Two Forms of Objectification

Women are objectified through overt sexualization and through a focus on physical appearance, but empirical research has not yet made this distinction. In three studies, we found evidence consistent with the hypothesis that although both forms of objectification strip women of their humanness, there are unique dehumanizing signatures associated with each. When women were objectified by a focus on their sexual features or functions (sexual objectification), they were perceived as lacking uniquely human attributes (i.e., animalistic dehumanization). Conversely, when women were objectified by an emphasis on their beauty or physical appearance (appearance-focused objectification), they were perceived as lacking human nature (i.e., mechanistic dehumanization). In Study 3, we also examined an outcome associated with women’s risk of harm and found that mechanistic dehumanization, in response to appearance-focused objectification, uniquely promoted the perception that a woman was less capable of feeling pain. Implications for objectification research are discussed.

Death and the Real Girl: The Impact of Mortality Salience on Men’s Attraction to Women as Objects

Feminist scholars, philosophers, and more recently, social psychological researchers have argued and provided evidence that women are objectified, often in a very literal manner. Terror management theory offers additional insight, suggesting there is an existential threat associated with men’s attraction to women’s natural bodies. When a woman’s body is objectified, however, it is devoid of this complication. In this chapter, we argue that existential concerns set the stage for men to find objectified depictions of women appealing. To examine this hypothesis, men and women rated the attractiveness of real women and men, or females and males that are literal objects—that is, mannequins—subsequent to being reminded of their mortality. As hypothesized, heterosexual men rated the female mannequin, but not the real woman (or either male target), as more attractive after being primed with mortality. The prime did not impact the ratings that heterosexual women gave to the targets. We discuss these findings and consider implications and remaining questions.

The enduring influence of death on health: insights from the terror management health model

Abstract The terror management health model suggests targeting sources of self-esteem or identity, in conjunction with mortality salience, offers a pathway for health behavior promotion. To date, however, experimental evidence has been limited to single time point studies. Two studies assessed whether similar processes impact behavior over time. In Study 1, mortality salience was paired with exercise (i.e., riding a recumbent bike); two weeks later, individuals primed with mortality reported more exercise than those not primed with death, and this increased fitness-contingent self-esteem and exercise intentions. In Study 2, when smokers visualized a prototypical unhealthy (vs. typical) smoker after mortality salience, they reported more attempts to quit smoking (over three weeks) than participants not primed with mortality. This facilitated continued quit attempts and decreased smoker identification three weeks later. Implications are discussed for a longitudinal process model in which mortality salience catalyzes a reinforcing relationship between behavior and esteem/identity, potentially sustaining health behavior change over time.

Prevalence of Skin Cancer Examination Among Users of Indoor Tanning Beds

Prevalence of Skin Cancer Examination Among Users of Indoor Tanning Beds Skin cancer examinations may be critical for the early detection and treatment of skin cancer.1 Although no general population-level screening guidelines exist,2 many US medical organizations advise that individuals at an increased risk of skin cancer, including users of indoor tanning beds, may benefit from routine screening.3 In addition, policy changes have advocated for regular skin cancer examinations in this high-risk group. In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration4 issued a reclassification of UV lamps for tanning from low-risk class I medical devices—the same designation as elastic bandages and dental floss—to moderateto high-risk class II devices. The order also put into place stricter requirements for device labeling, including the warning directive recommending, “Persons repeatedly exposed to UV radiation should be regularly evaluated for skin cancer.”4 Given the renewed discussion about skin cancer screening among users of indoor tanning beds, the purpose of this investigation was to assess the prevalence of professional skin cancer examinations (PSEs) and skin cancer selfexaminations (SSEs) among those who engage in indoor tanning behavior using estimates from a recent national survey.

Decision Tree Model vs Traditional Measures to Identify Patterns of Sun-Protective Behaviors and Sun Sensitivity Associated With Sunburn

Importance Understanding patterns of sun-protective behaviors and their association with sunburn can provide important insight into measurement approaches and intervention targets. Objective To assess whether decision-based modeling can be used to identify patterns of sun-protective behaviors associated with the likelihood of sunburn and to compare the predictive value of this method with traditional (ie, composite score) measurement approaches. Design, Setting, and Participants This cross-sectional study used a nationally representative sample of 31 162 US adults from the 2015 National Health Interview Survey, consisting of household interviews conducted in person and completed by telephone when necessary. Participants included civilian noninstitutionalized US adults. Data were collected from January 1 through December 31, 2015. Main Outcomes and Measures The associations among sun sensitivity, multiple sun-protective behaviors (ie, using sunscreen, seeking shade, wearing a hat, and wearing protective clothing), and sunburn were examined using a &khgr;2 automatic interaction detection method for decision tree analysis. Results were compared with a composite score approach. Results In our study population of 28 558 respondents with complete data (54.1% women; mean [SD] age, 49.0 [18.0] years), 20 patterns of sun protection were identified. Among 15 992 sun-sensitive individuals, those who used only sunscreen had the highest likelihood of sunburn (62.4%). The group with the lowest likelihood of sunburn did not report using sunscreen but engaged in the other 3 protective behaviors (24.3% likelihood of sunburn). Among 12 566 non–sun-sensitive individuals, those who engaged in all 4 protective behaviors had the lowest likelihood of sunburn (6.6%). The highest likelihood of sunburn was among those who only reported sunscreen use (26.2%). The decision tree model and the composite score approach correctly classified a similar number of cases; however, the decision tree model was superior in classifying cases with sunburn (44.3% correctly classified in the decision tree vs 25.9% with the composite score). Conclusions and Relevance This innovative application of a decision tree analytic approach demonstrates the interactive and sometimes counterintuitive effects of multiple sun-protective behaviors on likelihood of sunburn. These data show where traditional measurement approaches of behavior may fall short and highlight the importance of linking behavior to a clinically relevant outcome. Given the scope of those affected and enormous associated health care costs, improving efforts in skin cancer prevention has the potential for a significant effect on public health.