Kate Szymanski

Social loafing and self-evaluation with an objective standard

Abstract It has been found that social loafing, the finding that participants working together put out less effort than participants working alone, can be eliminated by the prospect of evaluation of individual outputs. In this work, the role of the experimenter as evaluator has been emphasized. However, when the experimenter cannot evaluate individual outputs, the participants are also unable to do so. In the present experiment, it was demonstrated that the potential for self-evaluation was sufficient to eliminate the loafing effect. In this study, the participants could evaluate themselves by comparing their performances to an objective standard, the number of signals presented in a vigilance task. Previous research has demonstrated similar effects using a social standard. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the possibility of evaluation by an external source is not required to eliminate the loafing effect; the potential for self-evaluation alone is sufficient to do so. These findings are discussed in relation to current theories of self-evaluation.

Self-Evaluation and Creativity

Lack of evaluation potential leads to the social loafing effect, the finding that participants working together expend less effort than participants working alone. In 1988 Bartis, Szymanski and Harkins replicated this effect, showing that the lack of potential for evaluation by the experimenter led participants to generate fewer uses for a common object when they were asked to generate as many uses as possible. However, their research also demonstrated that this lack of evaluation potential facilitated creativity. Szymanski and Harkins have previously shown that the potential for self-evaluation has the same effect on loafing as experimenter evaluation. When participants can self-evaluate, the loafing effect is eliminated. In the present study, the effect of the potential for self-evaluation on creativity was tested. In a replication of the Bartis et al. study, subjects were asked either to generate as many uses as possible for a common object or to generate uses that were as creative as possible. The results demonstrated that the potential for self-evaluation undermined creativity and facilitated productivity of performance.

Trauma and ADHD – Association or Diagnostic Confusion? A Clinical Perspective

In recent years, a growing body of research has developed to examine the relationship between exposure to traumatic events in childhood and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; Daud and Rydelius, 2009; Famularo et al., 1996; Ford et al., 2000; Lipschitz, Morgan and Southwick, 2002; McLeer et al., 1998; Cuffe, McCullough and Pumariega, 1994; Husain, Allwood and Bell, 2008). It is not surprising that these two areas are being evaluated, as cognitive and emotional disruptions that occur in response to trauma, such as difficulty concentrating, dysregulated affect, irritability, and hyperarousal, either overlap with ADHD symptomatology or exasperate it (Barkley, Grodzinsky and DuPaul, 1992; Daud and Rydelius, 2009; De Bellis, 2001; Ford et al., 2000; Jennings et al., 1997). From an epidemiological perspective, trauma exposure and ADHD are pervasive in childhood. Up to half of children in community samples, as well as two-thirds of children in psychiatric samples, have witnessed or experienced trauma (Boney-McCoy and Finkelhor, 1995). The overall rate for ADHD diagnoses varies from seven to twenty-nine percent among school-age children (see review by Barkley, 2006). Because both phenomena are prevalent, it is not surprising that they often overlap (Wozniak et al., 1999). There is an existing body of research that attempts to assess the trauma-ADHD link and to isolate possible mechanisms behind it. We will present a comprehensive review of the literature covering the trauma-ADHD relationship, and we will illustrate it using descriptive data from a hospitalized sample of children and adolescents. This article will address the following questions pertaining to trauma-ADHD association: First, is exposure to trauma a risk factor for the development of ADHD? Second, is the diagnosis of ADHD a misrepresentation of symptoms related to traumatic exposure? The clinical implications of both questions in context of identifying and treating children and adolescents who present with ADHD will be discussed.

ADHD and Complex Trauma: A Descriptive Study of Hospitalized Children in an Urban Psychiatric Hospital

This paper embarks on a descriptive exploration of the relations between ADHD and Complex Trauma among children in an urban psychiatric hospital. To date, these two diagnostic categories have not been examined in concert. This study was based upon chart reviews of 79 children and adolescents who were receiving treatment at an urban childrens psychiatric hospital. The Hospitalized Child and Adolescent Trauma and Psychopathology Questionnaire was completed for each participant and information regarding demographics, diagnosis, and complex trauma. Results showed ADHD children experience higher incidences of chronic stress, termed here as environmental trauma, and disruptions in attachment relationships referred to here as attachment trauma. We propose that experiences of chronic adverse situations during childhood, also referred to as complex trauma, cannot be extricated from ADHD symptomatology and is strongly correlated with behavior that is common among children who have deficits in psychological processes known as mentalization. Implications for development of a capacity to mentalize with ADHD children are discussed.

The family roles of siblings of people diagnosed with a mental disorder: Heroes and lost children

In order to cope with the diagnosis of mental illness in a family member, siblings may be forced to adjust their roles in the family. Taking into account the crucial role that some siblings play in caregiving for the mentally ill especially when the parents are no longer available, it is imperative to develop awareness of their unique needs and address them. Thirty-three adult siblings of people diagnosed with a mental disorder completed the Role Behaviour Inventory (RBI) and a general questionnaire including open-ended questions regarding the roles they played in their families of origin. Findings from the inventory and general questionnaire suggest that the well siblings score higher on two roles, the Hero and Lost Child, and lower on the Mascot and Scapegoat roles relative to a comparison group (N = 33). Being a sibling caregiver emerged as a risk factor to assume certain dysfunctional roles in the family. Implications for future research and therapy are discussed.

Having a Mentally Ill Sibling: Implications for Attachment With Parental Figures

Participants (n = 33) with a sibling diagnosed with a mental disorder completed the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA). Analysis of perceived quality of attachment scores after the diagnosis of their siblings showed statistically significant lower attachment scores with maternal figures compared with scores before the diagnosis. There was no statistically significant change in perceived quality of attachment scores with paternal figures. Possible explanations of these findings are explored including the role mothers play in caring for their mentally ill children and its impact on the well siblings. Implication for future research and therapy are discussed.

Emotional Intelligence in Siblings of Patients Diagnosed With a Mental Disorder

The current study assessed the ability of siblings of patients diagnosed with a mental disorder on a measure of emotional intelligence, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002; Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT): Users Manual. Multi-Health Systems, Inc., Toronto, Ontario). Thirty siblings of patients diagnosed with a mental disorder by a mental health professional (mostly schizophrenia and bipolar disorders) completed the MSCEIT. Their performance was compared against the population mean of 100 (based on a sample of 5,000 participants) on different abilities of emotional intelligence. Siblings performed statistically better than the population on Experiential EIQ, the ability to perceive, to respond, and to manipulate emotional input without necessarily understanding it, and statistically worse than the population mean on Strategic EIQ, the ability to understand and manage emotions without necessarily perceiving or fully experiencing them. Experiential EIQ appears to be a strength while Strategic EIQ appears to be a weakness for siblings. Implications for therapy are discussed.