Kathryn H. Matlack

Evaluation of radiation damage using nonlinear ultrasound

Nonlinear ultrasound was used to monitor radiation damage in two reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels. The microstructural changes associated with radiation damage include changes in dislocation density and the formation of precipitates, and nonlinear ultrasonic waves are known to be sensitive to such changes. Six samples each of two different RPV steels were previously irradiated in the Rheinsberg power reactor to two fluence levels, up to 1020 n/cm2 (E > 1 MeV). Longitudinal waves were used to measure the acoustic nonlinearity in these samples, and the results show a clear increase in the measured acoustic nonlinearity from the unirradiated state to the medium dose, and then a decrease from medium dose to high dose.

Composite 3D-printed metastructures for low-frequency and broadband vibration absorption

Significance Architected material used to control elastic wave propagation has thus far relied on two mechanisms for forming band gaps, or frequency ranges that cannot propagate: (i) Phononic crystals rely on their structural periodicity to form Bragg band gaps, but are limited in the low-frequency ranges because their unit cell size scales with wavelength; and (ii) Metamaterials overcome this size dependence because they rely on local resonances, but the resulting band gaps are very narrow. Here, we introduce a class of materials, elastic metastructures, that exploit resonating elements to broaden and lower Bragg gaps while reducing the mass of the system. This approach to band-gap engineering can be used for low-frequency vibration absorption and wave guiding across length scales. Architected materials that control elastic wave propagation are essential in vibration mitigation and sound attenuation. Phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials use band-gap engineering to forbid certain frequencies from propagating through a material. However, existing solutions are limited in the low-frequency regimes and in their bandwidth of operation because they require impractical sizes and masses. Here, we present a class of materials (labeled elastic metastructures) that supports the formation of wide and low-frequency band gaps, while simultaneously reducing their global mass. To achieve these properties, the metastructures combine local resonances with structural modes of a periodic architected lattice. Whereas the band gaps in these metastructures are induced by Bragg scattering mechanisms, their key feature is that the band-gap size and frequency range can be controlled and broadened through local resonances, which are linked to changes in the lattice geometry. We demonstrate these principles experimentally, using advanced additive manufacturing methods, and inform our designs using finite-element simulations. This design strategy has a broad range of applications, including control of structural vibrations, noise, and shock mitigation.

Experimental characterization of efficient second harmonic generation of Lamb wave modes in a nonlinear elastic isotropic plate

This research experimentally characterizes the efficiency of Lamb wave mode pairs to generate the cumulative second harmonic in an undamaged aluminum plate. Previous research developed the theoretical framework for the characteristics of second harmonic generation of Lamb waves in nonlinear elastic plates, and identified five mode types where the amplitude of the measured second harmonic should increase linearly with ultrasonic wave propagation distance. The current research considers one of these five mode types, Lamb wave mode pairs at the longitudinal velocity, and experimentally confirms the theoretically predicted ratios of the rate of accumulation of the second harmonic amplitude versus propagation distance for two different Lamb wave mode pairs. By comparing these rates of accumulation, these experimental results are used to characterize the measurement efficiency of the mode pairs under consideration.

Diffraction, attenuation, and source corrections for nonlinear Rayleigh wave ultrasonic measurements

This research considers the effects of diffraction, attenuation, and the nonlinearity of generating sources on measurements of nonlinear ultrasonic Rayleigh wave propagation. A new theoretical framework for correcting measurements made with air-coupled and contact piezoelectric receivers for the aforementioned effects is provided based on analytical models and experimental considerations. A method for extracting the nonlinearity parameter β11 is proposed based on a nonlinear least squares curve-fitting algorithm that is tailored for Rayleigh wave measurements. Quantitative experiments are conducted to confirm the predictions for the nonlinearity of the piezoelectric source and to demonstrate the effectiveness of the curve-fitting procedure. These experiments are conducted on aluminum 2024 and 7075 specimens and a β11(7075)/β11(2024) measure of 1.363 agrees well with previous literature and earlier work. The proposed work is also applied to a set of 2205 duplex stainless steel specimens that underwent various degrees of heat-treatment over 24h, and the results improve upon conclusions drawn from previous analysis.

Using nonlinear ultrasound to measure microstructural changes due to radiation damage in steel

The planned life extension of nuclear reactors throughout the United States and abroad will cause reactor vessel and internals materials to be exposed to more neutron irradiation than was originally intended. A nondestructive evaluation (NDE) method to monitor radiation damage would enable safe and cost-effective continued operation of nuclear reactors. Nonlinear ultrasound is an NDE technique that is sensitive to microstructural changes in metallic materials, such as dislocations, precipitates, and their combinations, which are quantified by the measurable acoustic nonlinearity parameter. Recent research has shown the sensitivity of the acoustic nonlinearity parameter to increasing neutron fluence in representative Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) steels. The current work considers nonlinear ultrasonic experiments conducted on similar RPV steel samples that had a combination of irradiation, annealing, re-irradiation, and/or re-annealing to a total neutron fluence of 0.5–5 x 1019 n/cm2(E > 1 MeV) at an irradiation temperature of 290°C. The acoustic nonlinearity parameter generally increased with increasing neutron fluence, and consistently decreased from the irradiated to the annealed state over different levels of neutron fluence. This comprehensive set of results illustrates the dependence of the measured acoustic nonlinearity parameter on neutron fluence, material composition, irradiation temperature, and annealing.

Nonlinear Rayleigh waves to detect initial damage leading to stress corrosion cracking in carbon steel

This research experimentally investigates second harmonic generation of Rayleigh waves propagating through carbon steel samples damaged in a stress corrosion environment. Damage from stress corrosion cracking is of major concern in nuclear reactor tubes and in gas and fuel transport pipelines. For example, certain types of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) account for more failures in steam generator tubes than most other damage mechanisms, yet these cracks do not initiate until late in the structures life. Thus, there is a need to be able to measure the damage state prior to crack initiation, and it has been shown that the acoustic nonlinearity parameter - the parameter associated with second harmonic generation - is sensitive to microstructural evolution. In this work, samples are immersed in a sodium carbonate-bicarbonate solution, which typically forms in the soil surrounding buried pipelines affected by SCC, and held at yield stress for 5-15 days to the onset of stress corrosion cracking. Measurements...

Designing perturbative metamaterials from discrete models

Identifying material geometries that lead to metamaterials with desired functionalities presents a challenge for the field. Discrete, or reduced-order, models provide a concise description of complex phenomena, such as negative refraction, or topological surface states; therefore, the combination of geometric building blocks to replicate discrete models presenting the desired features represents a promising approach. However, there is no reliable way to solve such an inverse problem. Here, we introduce ‘perturbative metamaterials’, a class of metamaterials consisting of weakly interacting unit cells. The weak interaction allows us to associate each element of the discrete model with individual geometric features of the metamaterial, thereby enabling a systematic design process. We demonstrate our approach by designing two-dimensional elastic metamaterials that realize Veselago lenses, zero-dispersion bands and topological surface phonons. While our selected examples are within the mechanical domain, the same design principle can be applied to acoustic, thermal and photonic metamaterials composed of weakly interacting unit cells.A perturbative method is proposed for the systematic design of mechanical metamaterials, where each element of the discrete model is associated with individual geometric features of the metamaterial, through the weak interaction between the unit cells.

Monitoring microstructural evolution in irradiated steel with second harmonic generation

Material damage in structural components is driven by microstructural evolution that occurs at low length scales and begins early in component life. In metals, these microstructural features are known to cause measurable changes in the acoustic nonlinearity parameter. Physically, the interaction of a monochromatic ultrasonic wave with microstructural features such as dislocations, precipitates, and vacancies, generates a second harmonic wave that is proportional to the acoustic nonlinearity parameter. These nonlinear ultrasonic techniques thus have the capability to evaluate initial material damage, particularly before crack initiation and propagation occur. This paper discusses how the nonlinear ultrasonic technique of second harmonic generation can be used as a nondestructive evaluation tool to monitor microstructural changes in steel, focusing on characterizing neutron radiation embrittlement in nuclear reactor pressure vessel steels. Current experimental evidence and analytical models linking microstructural evolution with changes in the acoustic nonlinearity parameter are summarized.

ON THE EFFICIENT EXCITATION OF SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION USING LAMB WAVE MODES

This research experimentally characterizes an efficient Lamb wave mode pair that generates the cumulative second harmonic in an undamaged aluminum plate. It has been shown that inherent material nonlinearity will generate a second harmonic component in an originally monochromatic ultrasonic Lamb wave signal if certain conditions are satisfied, and the normalized second harmonic amplitude should increase with propagation distance. Previous research has identified five Lamb wave mode types exhibiting second harmonic generation (SHG) and theoretically compares the rate of accumulation of the second harmonic over propagation distance for each mode. This research experimentally investigates a new Lamb mode pair that has a higher rate of accumulation than those studied in the existing literature, and develops improved experimental techniques that can be applied to other modes for SHG measurements.

Radiation damage characterization in reactor pressure vessel steels with nonlinear ultrasound

Nuclear generation currently accounts for roughly 20% of the US baseload power generation. Yet, many US nuclear plants are entering their first period of life extension and older plants are currently undergoing assessment of technical basis to operate beyond 60 years. This means that critical components, such as the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), will be exposed to higher levels of radiation than they were originally intended to withstand. Radiation damage in reactor pressure vessel steels causes microstructural changes such as vacancy clusters, precipitates, dislocations, and interstitial loops that leave the material in an embrittled state. The development of a nondestructive evaluation technique to characterize the effect of radiation exposure on the properties of the RPV would allow estimation of the remaining integrity of the RPV with time. Recent research has shown that nonlinear ultrasound is sensitive to radiation damage. The physical effect monitored by nonlinear ultrasonic techniques is the generation of higher harmonic frequencies in an initially monochromatic ultrasonic wave, arising from the interaction of the ultrasonic wave with microstructural features such as dislocations, precipitates, and their combinations. Current findings relating the measured acoustic nonlinearity parameter to increasing levels of neutron fluence for different representative RPV materials are presented.