Katie Siegler

Environmental fate of fungicides and other current-use pesticides in a central California estuary

The current study documents the fate of current-use pesticides in an agriculturally-dominated central California coastal estuary by focusing on the occurrence in water, sediment and tissue of resident aquatic organisms. Three fungicides (azoxystrobin, boscalid, and pyraclostrobin), one herbicide (propyzamide) and two organophosphate insecticides (chlorpyrifos and diazinon) were detected frequently. Dissolved pesticide concentrations in the estuary corresponded to the timing of application while bed sediment pesticide concentrations correlated with the distance from potential sources. Fungicides and insecticides were detected frequently in fish and invertebrates collected near the mouth of the estuary and the contaminant profiles differed from the sediment and water collected. This is the first study to document the occurrence of many current-use pesticides, including fungicides, in tissue. Limited information is available on the uptake, accumulation and effects of current-use pesticides on non-target organisms. Additional data are needed to understand the impacts of pesticides, especially in small agriculturally-dominated estuaries.

Pyrethroid and organophosphate pesticide‐associated toxicity in two coastal watersheds (California, USA)

Portions of the Santa Maria River and Oso Flaco Creek watersheds in central California, USA, are listed as impaired under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act and require development of total maximum daily load (TMDL) allocations. These listings are for general pesticide contamination, but are largely based on historic monitoring of sediment and fish tissue samples that showed contamination by organochlorine pesticides. Recent studies have shown that toxicity in these watersheds is caused by organophosphate pesticides (water and sediment) and pyrethroid pesticides (sediment). The present study was designed to provide information on the temporal and spatial variability of toxicity associated with these pesticides to better inform the TMDL process. Ten stations were sampled in four study areas, one with urban influences, and the remaining in agriculture production areas. Water toxicity was assessed with the water flea Ceriodaphnia dubia, and sediment toxicity was assessed with the amphipod Hyalella azteca. Stations in the lower Santa Maria River had the highest incidence of toxicity, followed by stations influenced by urban inputs. Toxicity identification evaluations and chemical analysis demonstrated that the majority of the observed water toxicity was attributed to organophosphate pesticides, particularly chlorpyrifos, and that sediment toxicity was caused by mixtures of pyrethroid pesticides. The results demonstrate that both agriculture and urban land uses are contributing toxic concentrations of these pesticides to adjacent watersheds, and regional water quality regulators are now using this information to develop management objectives.

Impacts of pesticides in a Central California estuary

Recent and past studies have documented the prevalence of pyrethroid and organophosphate pesticides in urban and agricultural watersheds in California. While toxic concentrations of these pesticides have been found in freshwater systems, there has been little research into their impacts in marine receiving waters. Our study investigated pesticide impacts in the Santa Maria River estuary, which provides critical habitat to numerous aquatic, terrestrial, and avian species on the central California coast. Runoff from irrigated agriculture constitutes a significant portion of Santa Maria River flow during most of the year, and a number of studies have documented pesticide occurrence and biological impacts in this watershed. Our study extended into the Santa Maria watershed coastal zone and measured pesticide concentrations throughout the estuary, including the water column and sediments. Biological effects were measured at the organism and community levels. Results of this study suggest the Santa Maria River estuary is impacted by current-use pesticides. The majority of water samples were highly toxic to invertebrates (Ceriodaphnia dubia and Hyalella azteca), and chemistry evidence suggests toxicity was associated with the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos, pyrethroid pesticides, or mixtures of both classes of pesticides. A high percentage of sediment samples were also toxic in this estuary, and sediment toxicity occurred when mixtures of chlorpyrifos and pyrethroid pesticides exceeded established toxicity thresholds. Based on a Relative Benthic Index, Santa Maria estuary stations where benthic macroinvertebrate communities were assessed were degraded. Impacts in the Santa Maria River estuary were likely due to the proximity of this system to Orcutt Creek, the tributary which accounts for most of the flow to the lower Santa Maria River. Water and sediment samples from Orcutt Creek were highly toxic to invertebrates due to mixtures of the same pesticides measured in the estuary. This study suggests that the same pyrethroid and organophosphate pesticides that have been shown to cause water and sediment toxicity in urban and agriculture water bodies throughout California, have the potential to affect estuarine habitats. The results establish baseline data in the Santa Maria River estuary to allow evaluation of ecosystem improvement as management initiatives to reduce pesticide runoff are implemented in this watershed.

Bioswales reduce contaminants associated with toxicity in urban storm water

Contamination and toxicity associated with urban storm water runoff are a growing concern because of the potential impacts on receiving systems. California water regulators are mandating implementation of green infrastructure as part of new urban development projects to treat storm water and increase infiltration. Parking lot bioswales are low impact development practices that promote filtering of runoff through plants and soil. Studies have demonstrated that bioswales reduce concentrations of suspended sediments, metals, and hydrocarbons. There have been no published studies evaluating how well these structures treat current-use pesticides, and studies have largely ignored whether bioswales reduce toxicity in surface water. Three storms were monitored at 3 commercial and residential sites, and reductions of contaminants and associated toxicity were quantified. Toxicity testing showed that the majority of untreated storm water samples were toxic to amphipods (Hyalella azteca) and midges (Chironomus dilutus), and toxicity was reduced by the bioswales. No samples were toxic to daphnids (Ceriodaphnia dubia) or fish (Pimephales promelas). Contaminants were significantly reduced by the bioswales, including suspended solids (81% reduction), metals (81% reduction), hydrocarbons (82% reduction), and pyrethroid pesticides (74% reduction). The single exception was the phenypyrazole pesticide fipronil, which showed inconsistent treatment. The results demonstrate these systems effectively treat contaminated storm water associated with surface water toxicity but suggest that modifications of their construction may be required to treat some contaminant classes. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:3124-3134.

Hypersalinity Toxicity Thresholds for Nine California Ocean Plan Toxicity Test Protocols

Currently, several desalination facilities have been proposed to operate or are actually operating in California. These facilities’ use of reverse osmosis (RO) may discharge hypersaline reject brine into the marine environment. The risks, if any, this brine would pose to coastal receiving waters are unknown. To test the toxicity of hypersaline brine in the absence of any additional toxic constituents, we prepared brine and tested it with the seven toxicity test organisms listed in the 2009 California Ocean Plan. The most sensitive protocols were the marine larval development tests, whereas the most tolerant to increased salinities were the euryhaline topsmelt, mysid shrimp, and giant kelp tests. Reject brines from the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s RO desalination facility were also tested with three species. The effects of the aquarium’s brine effluent on topsmelt, mussels, and giant kelp were consistent with those observed in the salinity tolerance experiments. This information will be used by regulators to establish receiving water limitations for hypersaline discharges.

Monitoring the aquatic toxicity of mosquito vector control spray pesticides to freshwater receiving waters

Pesticides are applied to state and local waterways in California to control insects such as mosquitoes, which are known to serve as a vector for West Nile Virus infection of humans. The California State Water Resources Control Board adopted a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System General Permit to address the discharge to waters of the United States of pesticides resulting from adult and larval mosquito control. Because pesticides used in spray activities have the potential to cause toxicity to nontarget organisms in receiving waters, the current study was designed to determine whether toxicity testing provides additional, useful environmental risk information beyond chemical analysis in monitoring spray pesticide applications. Monitoring included a combination of aquatic toxicity tests and chemical analyses of receiving waters from agricultural, urban, and wetland habitats. The active ingredients monitored included the organophosphate pesticides malathion and naled, the pyrethroid pesticides etofenprox, permethrin, and sumithrin, pyrethrins, and piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Approximately 15% of the postapplication water samples were significantly toxic. Toxicity of half of these samples was attributed to the naled breakdown product dichlorvos. Toxicity of 2 other water samples likely occurred when PBO synergized the effects of pyrethroid pesticides that were likely present in the receiving system. Four of 43 postapplication sediment samples were significantly more toxic than their corresponding pre-application samples, but none of the observed toxicity was attributed to the application events. These results indicate that many of the spray pesticides used for adult mosquito control do not pose significant acute toxicity risk to invertebrates in receiving systems. In the case of naled in water, analysis of only the active ingredient underestimated potential impacts to the receiving system, because toxicity was attributed to the breakdown product, dichlorvos. Toxicity testing can provide useful risk information about unidentified, unmeasured toxicants or mixtures of toxicants. In this case, toxicity testing provided information that could lead to the inclusion of dichlorvos monitoring as a permit requirement.

An integrated vegetated ditch system reduces chlorpyrifos loading in agricultural runoff

Agricultural runoff containing toxic concentrations of the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos has led to impaired water body listings and total maximum daily load restrictions in Californias central coast watersheds. Chlorpyrifos use is now tightly regulated by the Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board. This study evaluated treatments designed to reduce chlorpyrifos in agricultural runoff. Initial trials evaluated the efficacy of 3 different drainage ditch installations individually: compost filters, granulated activated carbon (GAC) filters, and native grasses in a vegetated ditch. Treatments were compared to bare ditch controls, and experiments were conducted with simulated runoff spiked with chlorpyrifos at a 1.9 L/s flow rate. Chlorpyrifos concentrations and toxicity to Ceriodaphnia dubia were measured at the input and output of the system. Input concentrations of chlorpyrifos ranged from 858 ng/L to 2840 ng/L. Carbon filters and vegetation provided the greatest load reduction of chlorpyrifos (99% and 90%, respectively). Toxicity was completely removed in only one of the carbon filter trials. A second set of trials evaluated an integrated approach combining all 3 treatments. Three trials were conducted each at 3.2 L/s and 6.3 L/s flow rates at input concentrations ranging from 282 ng/L to 973 ng/L. Chlorpyrifos loadings were reduced by an average of 98% at the low flow rate and 94% at the high flow rate. Final chlorpyrifos concentrations ranged from nondetect (<50 ng/L) to 82 ng/L. Toxicity to C. dubia was eliminated in 3 of 6 integrated trials. Modeling of the ditch and its components informed design alterations that are intended to eventually remove up to 100% of pesticides and sediment. Future work includes investigating the adsorption capacity of GAC, costs associated with GAC disposal, and real-world field trials to further reduce model uncertainties and confirm design optimization. Trials with more water-soluble pesticides such as neonicotinoids are also recommended. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:423-430.