Keisuke Ono

Canopy-scale relationships between stomatal conductance and photosynthesis in irrigated rice

Modeling stomatal behavior is critical in research on land-atmosphere interactions and climate change. The most common model uses an existing relationship between photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. However, its parameters have been determined using infrequent and leaf-scale gas-exchange measurements and may not be representative of the whole canopy in time and space. In this study, we used a top-down approach based on a double-source canopy model and eddy flux measurements throughout the growing season. Using this approach, we quantified the canopy-scale relationship between gross photosynthesis and stomatal conductance for 3 years and their relationships with leaf nitrogen content throughout each growing season above a paddy rice canopy in Japan. The canopy-averaged stomatal conductance (gsc ) increased with increasing gross photosynthesis per unit green leaf area (Ag ), as was the case with leaf-scale measurements, and 41-90% of its variation was explained by variations in Ag adjusted to account for the leaf-to-air vapor-pressure deficit and CO2 concentration using the Leuning model. The slope (m) in this model (gsc versus the adjusted Ag ) was almost constant within a 15-day period, but changed seasonally. The m values determined using an ensemble dataset for two mid-growing-season 15-day periods were 30.8 (SE = 0.5), 29.9 (SE = 0.7), and 29.9 (SE = 0.6) in 2004, 2005, and 2006, respectively; the overall mid-season value was 30.3 and did not greatly differ among the 3 years. However, m appeared to be higher during the early and late growing seasons. The ontogenic changes in leaf nitrogen content strongly affected Ag and thus gsc . In addition, we have discussed the agronomic impacts of the interactions between leaf nitrogen content and gsc . Despite limitations in the observations and modeling, our canopy-scale results emphasize the importance of continuous, season-long estimates of stomatal model parameters for crops using top-down approaches.

Experimental evaluation of water vapour cross-sensitivity for accurate eddy covariance measurement of CO 2 flux using open-path CO 2 /H 2 O gas analysers

Non-dispersive infrared CO2/H2O gas analysers produce erroneous CO2 outputs when CO2 is measured in humid air, unless a correction for water vapour cross-sensitivity is applied. Spectroscopic cross-sensitivities arising from direct absorption interference and from the pressure broadening effect are significant in CO2 flux measurements by the eddy covariance technique using open-path gas analysers over the ocean, as opposed to land-surface measurements, where CO2 fluxes are orders of magnitude larger. In this study, a widely used analyser with manufacturer-determined correction coefficients for both cross-sensitivities was tested by laboratory experiments. Our results showed that the correction coefficient for direct absorption interference was not optimised to calculate CO2 flux accurately, and that the correction coefficient for the pressure broadening caused overestimation of the CO2 mixing ratio flux in the same direction as the water vapour flux. Overestimations of open-path eddy covariance measurements of upward CO2 fluxes in previous ocean observations probably resulted from inaccuracies in both of these correction coefficients. We also found that slight changes in spectroscopic cross-sensitivities due to contamination of the analysers optical windows by sea salt caused a low bias in CO2 outputs with increasing H2O; however, this contamination effect was not always observed in repeated tests under different contamination conditions. We suggest that previously proposed methods for correcting the effect of optical window contamination is of limited value and that measurement of small CO2 fluxes by the open-path eddy covariance technique over the ocean should be performed after confirming the spectroscopic cross-sensitivity and ensuring that the optical windows are as clean as possible.

The Impact of Sunlight Conditions on the Consistency of Vegetation Indices in Croplands—Effective Usage of Vegetation Indices from Continuous Ground-Based Spectral Measurements

A ground-based network of spectral observations is useful for ecosystem monitoring and validation of satellite data. However, these observations contain inherent uncertainties due to the change of sunlight conditions. This study investigated the impact of changing solar zenith angles and diffuse/direct light conditions on the consistency of vegetation indices (normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and green-red vegetation index (GRVI)) derived from ground-based spectral measurements in three different types of cropland (paddy field, upland field, cultivated grassland) in Japan. In general, the vegetation indices decreased with decreasing solar zenith angle. This response was affected significantly by the growth stage and diffuse/direct light conditions. The decreasing response of the NDVI to the decreasing solar zenith angle was high during the middle growth stage (0.4 < NDVI < 0.8). On the other hand, a similar response of the GRVI was evident except in the early growth stage (GRVI < 0). The response of vegetation indices to the solar zenith angle was evident under clear sky conditions but almost negligible under cloudy sky conditions. At large solar zenith angles, neither the NDVI nor the GRVI were affected by diffuse/direct light conditions in any growth stage. These experimental results were supported well by the results of simulations based on a physically-based canopy reflectance model (PROSAIL). Systematic selection of the data from continuous diurnal spectral measurements in consideration of the solar light conditions would be effective for accurate and consistent assessment of the canopy structure and functioning.

Manure application has an effect on the carbon budget of a managed grassland in southern Hokkaido, Japan

Abstract The carbon (C) budget of managed grassland in a cool-temperate region of Japan was estimated using a combination of eddy covariance and the biometric method for five years, to evaluate the effect of manure application. Chemical fertilizer was applied to the fertilizer (F) plot at a rate of 79 ± 20 kg N ha−1 yr−1. In the manure (M) plot, dairy cattle manure was applied at a rate of 10 Mg fresh matter ha−1 yr−1 (1923 ± 407 kg C ha−1 yr−1, 159 ± 68 kg N ha−1 yr−1). There was no significant difference in seasonal gross primary production (GPP) and harvest between the treatment plots, indicating that both fertilizer and manure can increase the biomass production. Annual net ecosystem production (NEP) and ecosystem respiration (RE) was significantly different between the treatment plots. The difference in RE, and between M and F plots approximates heterotrophic respiration of manure (RHm), which ranged from 0.9 to 1.3 Mg C ha−1 yr−1. Average annual RHm was 1.1 ± 0.4 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, and accounted for 56% of the total amount of applied manure C. The annual net biome production (NBP) in the M plot (from 0.0 to 1.5 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) was significantly higher than in the F plot (−1.4 to 0.5 Mg C ha−1 yr−1). The long-term effect of manure application combined with chemical fertilizer did not reduce grass production compared with chemical fertilizer only; however, manure application decreased the NEP throughout manure decomposition, and long-term manure application enhanced the NBP.

A Model of Silicon Dynamics in Rice: An Analysis of the Investment Efficiency of Si Transporters

Silicon is the second most abundant element in soils and is beneficial for plant growth. Although, the localizations and polarities of rice Si transporters have been elucidated, the mechanisms that control the expression of Si transporter genes and the functional reasons for controlling expression are not well-understood. We developed a new model that simulates the dynamics of Si in the whole plant in rice by considering Si transport in the roots, distribution at the nodes, and signaling substances controlling transporter gene expression. To investigate the functional reason for the diurnal variation of the expression level, we compared investment efficiencies (the amount of Si accumulated in the upper leaf divided by the total expression level of Si transporter genes) at different model settings. The model reproduced the gradual decrease and diurnal variation of the expression level of the transporter genes observed by previous experimental studies. The results of simulation experiments showed that a considerable reduction in the expression of Si transporter genes during the night increases investment efficiency. Our study suggests that rice has a system that maximizes the investment efficiency of Si uptake.

Increasing canopy photosynthesis in rice can be achieved without a large increase in water use–a model based on free-air CO2 enrichment

Achieving higher canopy photosynthesis rates is one of the keys to increasing future crop production; however, this typically requires additional water inputs because of increased water loss through the stomata. Lowland rice canopies presently consume a large amount of water, and any further increase in water usage may significantly impact local water resources. This situation is further complicated by changing the environmental conditions such as rising atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2 ]). Here, we modeled and compared evapotranspiration of fully developed rice canopies of a high-yielding rice cultivar (Oryza sativa L. cv. Takanari) with a common cultivar (cv. Koshihikari) under ambient and elevated [CO2 ] (A-CO2 and E-CO2 , respectively) via leaf ecophysiological parameters derived from a free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiment. Takanari had 4%-5% higher evapotranspiration than Koshihikari under both A-CO2 and E-CO2 , and E-CO2 decreased evapotranspiration of both varieties by 4%-6%. Therefore, if Takanari was cultivated under future [CO2 ] conditions, the cost for water could be maintained at the same level as for cultivating Koshihikari at current [CO2 ] with an increase in canopy photosynthesis by 36%. Sensitivity analyses determined that stomatal conductance was a significant physiological factor responsible for the greater canopy photosynthesis in Takanari over Koshihikari. Takanari had 30%-40% higher stomatal conductance than Koshihikari; however, the presence of high aerodynamic resistance in the natural field and lower canopy temperature of Takanari than Koshihikari resulted in the small difference in evapotranspiration. Despite the small difference in evapotranspiration between varieties, the model simulations showed that Takanari clearly decreased canopy and air temperatures within the planetary boundary layer compared to Koshihikari. Our results indicate that lowland rice varieties characterized by high-stomatal conductance can play a key role in enhancing productivity and moderating heat-induced damage to grain quality in the coming decades, without significantly increasing crop water use.

8 million phenological and sky images from 29 ecosystems from the Arctic to the tropics: the Phenological Eyes Network

We report long-term continuous phenological and sky images taken by time-lapse cameras through the Phenological Eyes Network (http://www.pheno-eye.org. Accessed 29 May 2018) in various ecosystems from the Arctic to the tropics. Phenological images are useful in recording the year-to-year variability in the timing of flowering, leaf-flush, leaf-coloring, and leaf-fall and detecting the characteristics of phenological patterns and timing sensitivity among species and ecosystems. They can also help interpret variations in carbon, water, and heat cycling in terrestrial ecosystems, and be used to obtain ground-truth data for the validation of satellite-observed products. Sky images are useful in continuously recording atmospheric conditions and obtaining ground-truth data for the validation of cloud contamination and atmospheric noise present in satellite remote-sensing data. We have taken sky, forest canopy, forest floor, and shoot images of a range of tree species and landscapes, using time-lapse cameras installed on forest floors, towers, and rooftops. In total, 84 time-lapse cameras at 29 sites have taken 8 million images since 1999. Our images provide (1) long-term, continuous detailed records of plant phenology that are more quantitative than in situ visual phenological observations of index trees; (2) basic information to explain the responsiveness, vulnerability, and resilience of ecosystem canopies and their functions and services to changes in climate; and (3) ground-truthing for the validation of satellite remote-sensing observations.