Keith Hoggart

Let's do away with rural

Abstract Research on rural areas has tended to adopt a theoretically undifferentiated approach to what is ‘rural’. Differences across rural areas have been recognized, but they have been inadequately theorized and similarities in causal processes across the rural-urban divide have received far too little attention. This paper argues that the complexity of structure-agency interrelationships is little understood, so that theoretical advancement is perhaps better approached by simplifying research designs by evaluating the circumstances under which similar structural contexts are associated with both similar and dissimilar behavioural outcomes. It is argued that if this approach is taken rural locations will need to be differentiated on account of their very different structural circumstances, while rural and urban places will often belong to the same population for the purposes of theoretical sampling.

What rural restructuring

Abstract This paper emerges from a growing sense of disquiet over the regularity and often loosely utilised appearance of the concept ‘rural restructuring’ in the literature. The paper examines rural restructuring from two perspectives — as an analytical approach that emphasizes the need for a holistic view of change processes, and as a statement on the character of change in the countryside. The argument put forward is that restructuring ideas have much to commend them as an approach, even if theoretical improvement will require more diversity in ‘starting’ theoretical perspectives and a stronger willingness to engage with other theoretical stances when the weaknesses of a ‘starting’ perspective are revealed. This will entail approaching questions of rural restructuring from a broader range of perspectives than currently dominant visions, which are grounded in political economy. In exploring restructuring ideas as ‘facts’, the paper focuses on England, as this is a country in which rural restructuring is commonly reported to have occurred or be occurring. The paper argues that this vision of the English countryside is too poorly articulated and that support for this vision is far from convincing. It cautions that restructuring processes are less widespread than is often implied. Moreover, there are grounds for seeing restructuring processes are reifying the past, not heralding a new social dynamic.

The restructuring of rural Spain

Abstract This paper explores the utility of ideas derived from the rural restructuring literature for understanding contemporary trends in rural Spain. It concludes that the processes that analysts associate with rural restructuring are of little help in understanding the Spanish context. As regards capitalist markets, the Spanish countryside is not characterised by economic diversification, professionalism, environmentalism and consumerism on a scale that resembles anticipations derived from the restructuring literature. For state processes, lethargy is a more appropriate adjective than restructuring. Likewise, social and cultural change in civil society are subdued versions of trends that beset Spanish society.

African Immigrant Workers in Spanish Agriculture

This paper explores reasons for the uneven employment of African workers in Spanish agriculture. Examining employment patterns at a provincial level, it explores why there is a concentration in certain regions of Spain. Focusing on the province of Girona, the study utilizes interview responses from African workers, employers and key local informants to explore reasons for African employment, as well as examining the working conditions of African labourers. It finds that Spanish workers have come to reject farming as an occupation, just as farm employers have come to favour African labourers over possible Spanish labour sources. Whether within or outside the farm sector, the vast majority of African workers do unskilled work, on poor pay, in occupations associated with inferior social status, with short periods of employment, in jobs that are rarely part of a promotion ladder. For many African immigrants, this means they have to shift into and out of farm work repeatedly, while those who stay in farming usually do so on a poor contractual footing. With the majority of immigrant African workers seeing Spain as their permanent home, the paper concludes by noting that the work experiences of African labourers strongly support segmentation theory ideas on the development of niches for particular kinds of workers. This is seen as having potentially detrimental long-term consequences for issues of social exclusion, as well as restricting the pace of productivity improvements in the farm sector.

The middle classes in rural England 1971–1991

Abstract This paper examines the issue of whether the English countryside has been ‘captured’ by the service classes. It examines this issue with regard to three questions: the role of the service classes in deciding dominant rural images; their role in controlling change processes in the countryside; and their share of the rural population. For the first two, doubts are raised about the importance that is being attached to middle class ‘capture’ ideas. The demographic takeover of the countryside is examined empirically, using census data on individuals from the Longitudinal Study. This shows that notions of a demographic dominance by the service classes are exaggerated and largely apply to SE England. Extending class membership to include those who have ever been in a class indicates that there is a comparatively slight tendency for migration into rural areas to be associated with downward social mobility amongst service class members. Inward movement was more closely allied to longer term service class membership. In gender terms rural areas were not distinguished from other zones in the same region in terms of the likelihood that female in-migrants would stay in full-time employment or leave the paid workforce.

Retired British Home Owners in Rural France

Drawing on a survey of 406 British home owners in France, this study examines the origins, destinations and reasons for purchasing homes in rural France. In doing so it compares first home retired households with their pre-retirement counterparts and with second home owners who are retired. No notable differences are found in the geographical distribution or reasons for selecting home locations between these groups. However, patterns of retirement migration to France do appear to differ from intra-national long-distance migration within Britain and North America. Pointers to these differences are given and suggestions for future research are made. In addition, despite family visits and the friendship that people find in their recipient French communities, it is suggested that potential problems could arise for residents in relatively isolated rural communes. More research is needed to assess whether the positive attractions that are drawing retirement migrants from Britain to France will outweigh the negative consequences of their new home location.

The social integration of British home owners into French rural communities

Abstract Based upon a survey of recent British buyers of French rural property, this paper considers the attitudes of British permanent residents and British second home owners in France both towards host French communities and towards each other. In exploring the notion of integration, we examine the nature and extent of contacts between British and French populations at the local level and identify the principal barriers to assimilation. The division between those British nationals who seek to integrate and those who seek to maintain essentially British social networks is assessed as is the impact of British newcomers upon local French communities. We conclude by identifying major differences between the integration strategies of Britons in France and those employed by urban to rural migrants in Britain.

British home owners and housing change in rural France

Abstract Drawing on a survey of 406 home owners in France, expansion in British property ownership is shown to have increased the rural housing stock and to have improved rural housing quality. In all, 30 per cent of British home owners in France have added at least one dwelling to the housing stock, mostly by restoring a derelict property or bringing an unwanted farm building into residential use. Amongst other property owners, 55 per cent have undertaken significant renovations (extensions, major structural work, etc.), so more than two‐thirds of all British buyers have helped raise the quality of the rural housing stock. This has had little effect on house prices, partly because there is little French demand for the properties Britons buy. Given that British buyers are also reluctant to acquire homes from other Britons, a semi‐autonomous housing market is being created in which resales are difficult. This tendency is weakening slightly now, but British owners who wish to sell continue to rely on France...

Property agents as gatekeepers in British house purchases in rural France

The central question of this paper is whether estate agents in France and companies advertising French property in Britain have directed the pace and geographical distribution of British rural house purchases in France. Such purchases are influential in raising the quality of the rural housing stock and generating local employment, so directing such property investments has important implications for rural development. This issue has particular long-term consequences, as British interest in purchasing rural homes in France mushroomed in the late 1980s and retains much latent potency today. Based on interviews with 30 property companies in Britain and 30 estate agents in France, plus questionnaire responses from 406 households in five departements, it is shown that early company involvement in this property market was associated with increased consumer awareness and interest. However, the extent to which companies direct purchasing behaviour seems more restricted; being most notable for those purchasers who are unfamiliar with France and French legal/property procedures.

Political parties and local authority capital investment in English cities, 1966–1971

Abstract Evidence from comparative statistical analyses of local authority outputs suggests that political party control has an independent effect on current expenditures. Evidence for local authority capital investments tends not to support this view, with one researcher recently arguing that this is due to differences in the nature of current and capital expenditure decision-making. By analysing highways and housing investments in 57 English county boroughs, this paper seeks to show that independent political party effects do exist for capital investments. The objective is not simply to provide evidence on the existence of party effects, but also to question the appropriateness of statistical methodologies utilized in most comparative output studies. It is argued that most of these studies have utilized research designs that do not allow for an adequate testing of their theoretical propositions. Even when independent party effects have been identified, analyses have tended to consider only one of the possible ways in which political party control can influence output levels.