Kelly Tsang

Graft versus Host Disease in the Bone Marrow, Liver and Thymus Humanized Mouse Model

Mice bearing a “humanized” immune system are valuable tools to experimentally manipulate human cells in vivo and facilitate disease models not normally possible in laboratory animals. Here we describe a form of GVHD that develops in NOD/SCID mice reconstituted with human fetal bone marrow, liver and thymus (NS BLT mice). The skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract and parotid glands are affected with progressive inflammation and sclerosis. Although all mice showed involvement of at least one organ site, the incidence of overt clinical disease was approximately 35% by 22 weeks after reconstitution. The use of hosts lacking the IL2 common gamma chain (NOD/SCID/γc−/−) delayed the onset of disease, but ultimately did not affect incidence. Genetic analysis revealed that particular donor HLA class I alleles influenced the risk for the development of GVHD. At a cellular level, GVHD is associated with the infiltration of human CD4+ T cells into the skin and a shift towards Th1 cytokine production. GVHD also induced a mixed M1/M2 polarization phenotype in a dermal murine CD11b+, MHC class II+ macrophage population. The presence of xenogenic GVHD in BLT mice both presents a major obstacle in the use of humanized mice and an opportunity to conduct preclinical studies on GVHD in a humanized model.

Gut microbiota induce IGF-1 and promote bone formation and growth

Significance New interventions are needed to improve bone health and reduce the risk for osteoporosis and fracture. Dysbiosis is increasingly linked to metabolic abnormalities, although the effect of the microbiota on skeletal health is poorly understood. Previous studies suggest microbiota are detrimental to bone by increasing resorption. In this report, we show that the gut resident microbiota promote bone formation, as well as resorption, with long-term exposure to microbiota resulting in net skeletal growth. Microbiota induce the hormone insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which promotes bone growth and remodeling. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), produced when microbiota ferment fiber, also induce IGF-1, suggesting a mechanism by which microbiota affect bone health. Manipulating the microbiome or its metabolites may afford opportunities to optimize bone health and growth. Appreciation of the role of the gut microbiome in regulating vertebrate metabolism has exploded recently. However, the effects of gut microbiota on skeletal growth and homeostasis have only recently begun to be explored. Here, we report that colonization of sexually mature germ-free (GF) mice with conventional specific pathogen-free (SPF) gut microbiota increases both bone formation and resorption, with the net effect of colonization varying with the duration of colonization. Although colonization of adult mice acutely reduces bone mass, in long-term colonized mice, an increase in bone formation and growth plate activity predominates, resulting in equalization of bone mass and increased longitudinal and radial bone growth. Serum levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a hormone with known actions on skeletal growth, are substantially increased in response to microbial colonization, with significant increases in liver and adipose tissue IGF-1 production. Antibiotic treatment of conventional mice, in contrast, decreases serum IGF-1 and inhibits bone formation. Supplementation of antibiotic-treated mice with short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), products of microbial metabolism, restores IGF-1 and bone mass to levels seen in nonantibiotic-treated mice. Thus, SCFA production may be one mechanism by which microbiota increase serum IGF-1. Our study demonstrates that gut microbiota provide a net anabolic stimulus to the skeleton, which is likely mediated by IGF-1. Manipulation of the microbiome or its metabolites may afford opportunities to optimize bone health and growth.

Interspecies Comparison of Human and Murine Scleroderma Reveals IL-13 and CCL2 as Disease Subset-Specific Targets

Development of personalized treatment regimens is hampered by lack of insight into how individual animal models reflect subsets of human disease, and autoimmune and inflammatory conditions have proven resistant to such efforts. Scleroderma is a lethal autoimmune disease characterized by fibrosis, with no effective therapy. Comparative gene expression profiling showed that murine sclerodermatous graft-versus-host disease (sclGVHD) approximates an inflammatory subset of scleroderma estimated at 17% to 36% of patients analyzed with diffuse, 28% with limited, and 100% with localized scleroderma. Both sclGVHD and the inflammatory subset demonstrated IL-13 cytokine pathway activation. Host dermal myeloid cells and graft T cells were identified as sources of IL-13 in the model, and genetic deficiency of either IL-13 or IL-4Rα, an IL-13 signal transducer, protected the host from disease. To identify therapeutic targets, we explored the intersection of genes coordinately up-regulated in sclGVHD, the human inflammatory subset, and IL-13-treated fibroblasts; we identified chemokine CCL2 as a potential target. Treatment with anti-CCL2 antibodies prevented sclGVHD. Last, we showed that IL-13 pathway activation in scleroderma patients correlated with clinical skin scores, a marker of disease severity. Thus, an inflammatory subset of scleroderma is driven by IL-13 and may benefit from IL-13 or CCL2 blockade. This approach serves as a model for personalized translational medicine, in which well-characterized animal models are matched to molecularly stratified patient subsets.

NFATc1 and NFATc2 repress spontaneous osteoarthritis

Significance Currently, little is understood about how the transcriptional regulation of cartilage breakdown contributes to pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA). Here, we report that, within cartilage, the transcription factor Nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1) displays selective expression in superficial articular chondrocytes. Accordingly, mice lacking both NFATc1 and NFATc2 in cartilage were generated and found to develop a severe, spontaneous and early-onset OA. These findings establish NFATc1 as a key transcriptional repressor of cartilage breakdown and OA. Additionally, these findings provide a unique model of OA that is an attractive platform for the preclinical development of treatments to alter the course of OA. Osteoarthritis (OA) was once viewed originally as a mechanical disease of “wear and tear,” but advances made during the past two decades suggest that abnormal biomechanics contribute to active dysregulation of chondrocyte biology, leading to catabolism of the cartilage matrix. A number of signaling and transcriptional mechanisms have been studied in relation to the regulation of this catabolic program, but how they specifically regulate the initiation or progression of the disease is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that cartilage-specific ablation of Nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (Nfatc1) in Nfatc2−/− mice leads to early onset, aggressive OA affecting multiple joints. This model recapitulates features of human OA, including loss of proteoglycans, collagen and aggrecan degradation, osteophyte formation, changes to subchondral bone architecture, and eventual progression to cartilage effacement and joint instability. Consistent with the notion that NFATC1 is an OA-suppressor gene, NFATC1 expression was significantly down-regulated in paired lesional vs. macroscopically normal cartilage samples from OA patients. The highly penetrant, early onset, and severe nature of this model make it an attractive platform for the preclinical development of treatments to alter the course of OA. Furthermore, these findings indicate that NFATs are key suppressors of OA, and regulating NFATs or their transcriptional targets in chondrocytes may lead to novel disease-modifying OA therapies.

SLC4A2-mediated Cl−/HCO3− exchange activity is essential for calpain-dependent regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in osteoclasts

Bone remodeling requires osteoclasts to generate and maintain an acidified resorption compartment between the apical membrane and the bone surface to solubilize hydroxyapatite crystals within the bone matrix. This acidification process requires (i) apical proton secretion by a vacuolar H+-ATPase, (ii) actin cytoskeleton reorganization into a podosome belt that forms a gasket to restrict lacunar acid leakage, and (iii) basolateral chloride uptake and bicarbonate extrusion by an anion exchanger to provide Cl− permissive for apical acid secretion while preventing cytoplasmic alkalinization. Here we show that osteoclast-targeted deletion in mice of solute carrier family 4 anion exchanger member 2 (Slc4a2) results in osteopetrosis. We further demonstrate a previously unrecognized consequence of SLC4A2 loss of function in the osteoclast: dysregulation of calpain-dependent podosome disassembly, leading to abnormal actin belt formation, cell spreading, and migration. Rescue of SLC4A2-deficient osteoclasts with functionally defined mutants of SLC4A2 indicates regulation of actin cytoskeletal reorganization by anion-exchange activity and intracellular pH, independent of SLC4A2’s long N-terminal cytoplasmic domain. These data suggest that maintenance of intracellular pH in osteoclasts through anion exchange regulates the actin superstructures required for bone resorption.

The collection of NFATc1-dependent transcripts in the osteoclast includes numerous genes non-essential to physiologic bone resorption

Osteoclasts are specialized secretory cells of the myeloid lineage important for normal skeletal homeostasis as well as pathologic conditions of bone including osteoporosis, inflammatory arthritis and cancer metastasis. Differentiation of these multinucleated giant cells from precursors is controlled by the cytokine RANKL, which through its receptor RANK initiates a signaling cascade culminating in the activation of transcriptional regulators which induce the expression of the bone degradation machinery. The transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T-cells c1 (NFATc1) is the master regulator of this process and in its absence osteoclast differentiation is aborted both in vitro and in vivo. Differential mRNA expression analysis by microarray is used to identify genes of potential physiologic relevance across nearly all biologic systems. We compared the gene expression profile of murine wild-type and NFATc1-deficient osteoclast precursors stimulated with RANKL and identified that the majority of the known genes important for osteoclastic bone resorption require NFATc1 for induction. Here, five novel RANKL-induced, NFATc1-dependent transcripts in the osteoclast are described: Nhedc2, Rhoc, Serpind1, Adcy3 and Rab38. Despite reasonable hypotheses for the importance of these molecules in the bone resorption pathway and their dramatic induction during differentiation, the analysis of mice with mutations in these genes failed to reveal a function in osteoclast biology. Compared to littermate controls, none of these mutants demonstrated a skeletal phenotype in vivo or alterations in osteoclast differentiation or function in vitro. These data highlight the need for rigorous validation studies to complement expression profiling results before functional importance can be assigned to highly regulated genes in any biologic process.

Polymorphisms in the Interleukin 4, Interleukin 13, and Corresponding Receptor Genes Are Not Associated with Systemic Sclerosis and Do Not Influence Gene Expression

Objective. Polymorphisms in the genes encoding interleukin 4 (IL4), interleukin 13 (IL13), and their corresponding receptors have been associated with multiple immune-mediated diseases. Our aim was to validate these previous observations in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) and scrutinize the effect of the polymorphisms on gene expression in various populations of peripheral blood leukocytes. Methods. We genotyped a cohort of 2488 patients with SSc and 2246 healthy controls from The Netherlands, Spain, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, and France. Taqman assays were used to genotype single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the following genes: (1) IL4 (−590C>T/rs2243250); (2) IL4 receptor alpha (IL4RA) (Q576R/rs1801275); (3) IL13 (R130Q/rs20541 and −1112C>T/rs1800925); and (4) IL13RA1 (43163G>A/rs6646259). The effect of these polymorphisms on expression of the corresponding genes was assessed using quantitative RT-PCR on RNA derived from peripheral blood B cells, T cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, monocytes, and myeloid dendritic cells. We investigated whether these polymorphisms influenced development of pulmonary complications over 15 years in patients with SSc. Results. None of the investigated polymorphisms was associated with SSc or any SSc clinical subtype. We did not observe any effect on transcript levels in the cell subtypes or on development of pulmonary complications. Conclusion. Our data showed that polymorphisms in IL4, IL13, and their receptors do not play a role in SSc and do not influence the expression of their corresponding transcript in peripheral blood cells.

Utility of quantitative micro-computed tomographic analysis in zebrafish to define gene function during skeletogenesis

The zebrafish is a powerful experimental model to investigate the genetic and morphologic basis of vertebrate development. Analysis of skeletogenesis in this fish is challenging as a result of the small size of the developing and adult zebrafish. Many of the bones of small fishes such as the zebrafish and medaka are quite thin, precluding many standard assays of bone quality and morphometrics commonly used on bones of larger animals. Microcomputed tomography (microCT) is a common imaging technique used for detailed analysis of the skeleton of the zebrafish and determination of mutant phenotypes. However, the utility of this modality for analysis of the zebrafish skeleton, and the effect of inherent variation among individual zebrafish, including variables such as sex, age and strain, is not well understood. Given the increased use and accessibility of microCT, we set out to define the sensitivity of microCT methods in developing and adult zebrafish. We assessed skeletal shape and density measures in the developing vertebrae and parasphenoid of the skull base. We found most skeletal variables are tightly correlated to standard length, but that at later growth stages (>3months) there are age dependent effects on some skeletal measures. Further we find modest strain but not sex differences in skeletal measures. These data suggest that the appropriate control for assessing mutant phenotypes should be age and strain matched, ideally a wild-type sibling. By analyzing two mutants exhibiting skeletal dysplasia, we show that microCT imaging can be a sensitive method to quantify distinct skeletal parameters of adults. Finally, as developing zebrafish skeletons remain difficult to resolve by radiographic means, we define a contrast agent specific for bone that enhances resolution at early stages, permitting detailed morphometric analysis of the forming skeleton. This increased capability for detection extends the use of this imaging modality to leverage the zebrafish model to understand the development causes of skeletal dysplasias.

Sex-Specific Protection of Osteoarthritis by Deleting Cartilage Acid Protein 1.

Cartilage acidic protein 1 (CRTAC1) was recently identified as an elevated protein in the synovial fluid of patients with osteoarthritis (OA) by a proteomic analysis. This gene is also upregulated in both human and mouse OA by transcriptomic analysis. The objective of this study was to characterize the expression and function of CRTAC1 in OA. Here, we first confirm the increase of CRTAC1 in cartilage biopsies from OA patients undergoing joint replacement by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, we report that proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha upregulate CRTAC1 expression in primary human articular chondrocytes and synovial fibroblasts. Genetic deletion of Crtac1 in mice significantly inhibited cartilage degradation, osteophyte formation and gait abnormalities of post-traumatic OA in female, but not male, animals undergoing the destabilization of medial meniscus (DMM) surgery. Taken together, CRTAC1 is upregulated in the osteoarthritic joint and directly induced in chondrocytes and synovial fibroblasts by pro-inflammatory cytokines. This molecule is necessary for the progression of OA in female mice after DMM surgery and thus represents a potential therapy for this prevalent disease, especially for women who demonstrate higher rates and more severe OA.