Ken-ichiro Taoka

Arabidopsis CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON3 Regulates Postembryonic Shoot Meristem and Organ Boundary Formation

Overall shoot architecture in higher plants is highly dependent on the activity of embryonic and axillary shoot meristems, which are produced from the basal adaxial boundaries of cotyledons and leaves, respectively. In Arabidopsis thaliana, redundant functions of the CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON genes CUC1, CUC2, and CUC3 regulate embryonic shoot meristem formation and cotyledon boundary specification. Their functional importance and relationship in postembryonic development, however, is poorly understood. Here, we performed extensive analyses of the embryonic and postembryonic functions of the three CUC genes using multiple combinations of newly isolated mutant alleles. We found significant roles of CUC2 and CUC3, but not CUC1, in axillary meristem formation and boundary specification of various postembryonic shoot organs, such as leaves, stems, and pedicels. In embryogenesis, all three genes make significant contributions, although CUC3 appears to possess, at least partially, a distinct function from that of CUC1 and CUC2. The function of CUC3 and CUC2 overlaps that of LATERAL SUPPRESSOR, which was previously shown to be required for axillary meristem formation. Our results reveal that redundant but partially distinct functions of CUC1, CUC2, and CUC3 are responsible for shoot organ boundary and meristem formation throughout the life cycle in Arabidopsis.

Regulation of flowering in rice: two florigen genes, a complex gene network, and natural variation

Photoperiodic control of flowering time consists of a complicated network that converges into the generation of a mobile flowering signal called florigen. Recent advances identifying the protein FT/Hd3a as the molecular nature responsible for florigen activity have focused current research on florigen genes as the important output of this complex signaling network. Rice is a model system for short-day plants and recent progress in elucidating the flowering network from rice and Arabidopsis, a long-day plant, provides an evolutionarily comparative view of the photoperiodic flowering pathway. This review summarizes photoperiodic flowering control in rice, including the interaction of complex layers of gene networks contributed from evolutionarily unique factors and the regulatory adaptation of conserved factors.

Regulation of histone gene expression during the cell cycle

The steady-state level of histone mRNAs fluctuates coordinately with chromosomal DNA synthesis during the cell cycle. Such an S phase-specific expression pattern results from transcriptional activation of histone genes coupled with the onset of replication and from transcriptional repression of the genes as well as specific destabilization of histone mRNAs around the end of the S phase. Proliferation-coupled and S phase-specific expression of histone genes is primarily achieved by the activities of the proximal promoter regions, where several conserved cis-acting elements have been identified. Among them, three kinds of Oct-containing composite elements (OCEs) play a pivotal role in S phase-specific transcriptional activation. Other ones, such as Nona, solo-Oct, and CCGTC motifs, appear to modulate the functions of OCEs to enhance or repress the transcriptional level, possibly depending on the state of the cells. Here, we review the growing evidence concerning the regulatory mechanisms by which plant histone genes are expressed S phase-specifically in proliferating cells.

Functional Diversification of FD Transcription Factors in Rice, Components of Florigen Activation Complexes

Florigen, a protein encoded by the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) in Arabidopsis and Heading date 3a (Hd3a) in rice, is the universal flowering hormone in plants. Florigen is transported from leaves to the shoot apical meristem and initiates floral evocation. In shoot apical cells, conserved cytoplasmic 14-3-3 proteins act as florigen receptors. A hexameric florigen activation complex (FAC) composed of Hd3a, 14-3-3 proteins, and OsFD1, a transcription factor, activates OsMADS15, a rice homolog of Arabidopsis APETALA1, leading to flowering. Because FD is a key component of the FAC, we characterized the FD gene family and their functions. Phylogenetic analysis of FD genes indicated that this family is divided into two groups: (i) canonical FD genes that are conserved among eudicots and non-Poaceae monocots; and (ii) Poaceae-specific FD genes that are organized into three subgroups: Poaceae FD1, FD2 and FD3. The Poaceae FD1 group shares a small sequence motif, T(A/V)LSLNS, with FDs of eudicots and non-Poaceae monocots. Overexpression of OsFD2, a member of the Poaceae FD2 group, produced smaller leaves with shorter plastochrons, suggesting that OsFD2 controls leaf development. In vivo subcellular localization of Hd3a, 14-3-3 and OsFD2 suggested that in contrast to OsFD1, OsFD2 is restricted to the cytoplasm through its interaction with the cytoplasmic 14-3-3 proteins, and interaction of Hd3a with 14-3-3 facilitates nuclear translocation of the FAC containing OsFD2. These results suggest that FD function has diverged between OsFD1 and OsFD2, but formation of a FAC is essential for their function.

Potato Tuber Induction is Regulated by Interactions Between Components of a Tuberigen Complex

Photoperiod-regulated flowering and potato tuber formation involve leaf-produced mobile signals, florigen and tuberigen, respectively. The major protein component of florigen has been identified as the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) protein. In rice, an FT-like protein, Heading date 3a (Hd3a), induces flowering by making the florigen activation complex (FAC) through interactions with 14-3-3 and OsFD1, a rice FD-like protein. In potato, StSP6A, an FT-like protein, was identified as a major component of tuberigen. However, the molecular mechanism of how StSP6A triggers tuber formation remains elusive. Here we analyzed the significance of the formation of a complex including StSP6A, 14-3-3 and FD-like proteins in tuberization. Yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation and in vitro pull-down assays showed that StSP6A and StFDL1, a potato FD-like protein, interact with St14-3-3s. StSP6A overexpression induced early tuberization in a 14-3-3-dependent manner, and suppression of StFDL1 delayed tuberization. These results strongly suggest that an FAC-like complex, the tuberigen activation complex (TAC), comprised of StSP6A, St14-3-3s and StFDL1, regulates potato tuber formation.

Chapter Five – Florigen Signaling

Florigen is a systemic signal that promotes flowering. Its molecular nature is a conserved FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) protein that belongs to the PEBP family. FT is expressed in the leaf phloem and transported to the shoot apical meristem where it initiates floral transition. In the cells of the meristem, FT binds 14-3-3 proteins and bZIP transcription factor FD to form the florigen activation complex, FAC, which activates floral meristem identity genes such as AP1. The FAC model provides molecular basis for multiple functions of FT beyond flowering through changes of its partners and transcriptional targets. The surface of FT protein includes several regions essential for transport and functions, suggesting the binding of additional components that support its function. FT expression is under photoperiodic control, involving a conserved GIGANTEA-CONSTANS-FT regulatory module with species-specific modifications that contribute variations of flowering time in natural populations.