Ken R. Lodewyk

Implications of task structure on self‐regulated learning and achievement

School tasks interact with student motivation, cognition, and instruction to influence learning and achievement. Heeding calls for additional research linking motivational and cognitive factors in learning and instruction on specific tasks within authentic classroom settings we quantitatively and qualitatively track 90 tenth‐grade science students’ motivation, reported use of learning strategies, achievement, calibration, and task perceptions as they engage in a well‐structured task (WST) and an ill‐structured task (IST). Students achieved higher grades on, and reported more ease and value for, the WST whereas they utilised critical thinking and peer learning strategies more on the IST. Lower academic achievers calibrated their achievement less accurately on each task and experienced lower grades, interest, ease, and management capability on the IST. Conversely, higher academic achieving students reported more self‐efficacy and effort regulation and lower anxiety and elaboration on the IST. Motivation – notably less intrinsic goal orientation in low academic achievers and higher task value and self‐efficacy – predicted performance on the IST. The structure of tasks may provide prompts that illicit unique self‐regulated learning responses in students.

Relations among Epistemological Beliefs, Academic Achievement, and Task Performance in Secondary School Students

Students with differing profiles of epistemological beliefs—their beliefs about personal epistemology, intelligence, and learning—vary in thinking, reasoning, motivation, and use of strategies while working on academic tasks, each of which affect learning. This study examined students’ epistemological beliefs according to gender, school orientation, overall academic achievement, and performance on two differently structured academic tasks. Epistemological beliefs in fixed and quick ability to learn, simple knowledge, and certain knowledge differed significantly as a function of gender, school orientation, and levels of academic achievement. These beliefs, particularly the belief in simple knowledge, significantly predicted overall performance and reflective judgment scores on the ill‐structured task but not on the well‐structured task. Implications concerning the relations among epistemological beliefs, reflective judgment, gender, school orientation, task structure, and achievement are discussed.

Fostering Critical Thinking in Physical Education Students

JOPERD • Volume 80 No. 8 • October 2009 P roficient movement in physical education involves sound decision-making skills such as critical thinking. For example, students learning volleyball face many decisions about rules, strategies, tactics, and skills. These decisions include transitioning to various offensive and defensive positions and postures depending on the location and flight of the ball and their opponents. Successful learners identify and understand problems, decide how to act on them, and then evaluate internal and external sources of feedback (e.g., teacher, peer comparisons). In comparison, less successful learners tend to be over-dependent on teachers for information, direction, and emotional support (King & Kitchener, 2002), in part because they view the teacher as the sole source of knowledge. Consequently, they often fail to persevere when working on tasks or inadequately use other sources of knowledge such as skilled peers or the literature (Cothran & Kulinna, 2006). This article summarizes the importance of critical thinking in physical education and provides suggestions for how such thinking in students can be improved by physical educators in regular class settings.

Associations between Anxiety, Self-Efficacy, and Outcomes by Gender and Body Size Dissatisfaction during Fitness in High School Physical Education.

Background: Noteworthy proportions of adolescents – particularly females – report negatively about their experiences regarding fitness and the testing of it during physical education (PE). These accounts often coincide with lower levels of body image, fitness, motivation, and physical activity and higher rates of attrition from optional PE. Purpose: The aim of this study was to test path relations between body size dissatisfaction (BSD), test anxiety (TA), self-efficacy, and fitness-related outcomes during fitness in PE and to determine whether these differ as a function of gender and level of BSD. Method: Survey data were collected from 394 9th and 10th-grade students in southern Ontario, Canada. A previously validated BSD measure was used that consisted of a series of nine gender-specific silhouettes ranging from very thin/slender to very large/overweight. Students’ dissatisfaction score involved subtracting self-ratings of their ideal body size from current body size estimates. Fitness indices in PE (FIPE)was the z-score of the sum of self-reported fitness level, fitness grade in PE, and frequency of active exercise at least 30 minutes per day. Self-efficacy and TA were assessed using established scales from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Data analysis: Multivariate analysis of variance was used to assess group differences whereas gender-specific confirmatory factor and path analyses were used to test the proposed path in which relations between BSD and FIPE were manifest indirectly through TA and self-efficacy. Findings: The hypothetical path fit the data in the overall sample and fit better for females than for males. Females reported a higher BSD and a lower self-efficacy and FIPE than males. BSD was evident in both genders with most females desiring a thinner body compared to boys who had relatively equal proportions wanting to be bigger and thinner. Males wanting to be smaller reported significantly lower self-efficacy and FIPE than males with little BSD or those wanting to be larger. Females desiring a thinner body reported significantly more TA and lower FIPE than females with no BSD. Conclusion: Body image concerns and elevated levels of anxiety appear to undergird the influence of self-efficacy on FIPE. This is particularly so in females, although both females and males with a BSD are susceptible to lowered fitness motivation and achievement in PE. Suggestions are provided to help physical educators to structure fitness curricula and pedagogy to better minimize this vulnerability. These include catering to the gender-specific needs and preferences for fitness activities during PE including the testing of fitness.

Reliability and Validity of Outcome Expectancy-Related Measures in Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of outcome likelihood, outcome value, and outcome expectancy using data collected from students in secondary school physical education classes. Dependent measures were examined for construct, concurrent, and predictive validity, as well as internal and temporal reliability. The results of the investigation indicated the following. First, confirmatory factor analyses for the dependent variables (outcome likelihood, outcome value, outcome expectancy) revealed a suitable fit of the data with a hypothesized factor structure. Second, significant associations between these variables and other personal beliefs and values provided sound evidence for the concurrent validity of outcome likelihood, outcome value, and outcome expectancy. Third, results of regression analyses revealed that outcome likelihood and outcome value had strong predictive validity in predicting physical activity behaviors. Finally, the internal reliabilities of self-report scales for the outcome likelihood, outcome value, and outcome expectancy over a three-semester period were satisfactory. The temporal reliabilities were also acceptable.

Associations between trait personality, anxiety, self-efficacy and intentions to exercise by gender in high school physical education

Abstract Trait personality has been associated with achievement and many of its related outcomes in settings such as education, health, physical activity and sport. Scant trait personality research has been performed among school-age students in physical education, so this study investigates relations between the six-dimension (HEXACO) model of trait personality and anxiety, self-efficacy and intentions to exercise as a function of gender in 316 high school physical education students. Students completed validated measures of these constructs. Results revealed that trait personality (particularly the social self-esteem aspect of extraversion) predicted lower anxiety and higher self-efficacy and intentions to exercise in both females and males. Openness to experience was predictive of both anxiety and lowered self-efficacy in females. It appears that physical educators should consider the role of the HEXACO personality traits and sub-traits in their students and potentially differentiate instruction to better accommodate students who are more vulnerable. From this study, it appears that students who are less extraverted and females who are more open to experience may be at be more at risk for anxiety and lower self-efficacy in physical education which may compromise their intentions to exercise.

High School Females' Emotions, Self-Efficacy, and Attributions during Soccer and Fitness Testing in Physical Education.

Female enthusiasm toward engaging in physical education decreases significantly with age. This has been linked to, among other things, the negative emotional experiences that sometimes occur when learning and participating in a variety of curricular content such as games or fitness activities. Little is yet known about how females’ enjoyment, state anxiety, social physique anxiety, self-efficacy, and causal attributions vary between such content. In this study, we examined how levels of these constructs differed between soccer and fitness testing units in 67 female students in Grade 9 physical education. Results revealed higher levels of affect in fitness testing than in soccer, specifically in state anxiety (p = .04), social physique anxiety (p = .008), and the attributions that “something can be changed” (p = .003) and “is because of me” (p = .01). Students’ concerns in the fitness testing unit were mainly apprehension about their performance and physical appearance (i.e., athletic physique), whereas in soccer they were more concerned with social comparisons, how their skills were being assessed, and their lack of skill ability. This, coupled with the prediction (p = .003) of soccer unit performance ratings by emotions and beliefs (notably self-efficacy; p = .003), provides new insight into how these units might uniquely challenge students. Subscribe to TPE

Gender-Specific Associations Between Kinesiology Undergraduate Students’ Personality Traits and their Motivation in School Physical Education

ABSTRACT The HEXACO dimensions of personality traits (honesty–humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) have been linked to many adaptive outcomes in physical education-related (PE) settings; yet, little is known about the relationship between personality traits and motivation in students of school PE. Using survey data from 300 (48.8% men, 51.2% women) university kinesiology students, this study explored gender-specific relations between the undergraduate students’ HEXACO personality traits and several indices of their motivation recalled from their experiences in school-based PE, namely, enjoyment, self-efficacy, positive affect, perceived autonomy support, and task and ego goal orientation. A second aim was to test differences in these constructs between kinesiology and PE majors. Results revealed that the HEXACO personality dimensions collectively predicted each of the six motivational constructs in females and four in males, extraversion predicted five motivational constructs in females and four in males, and openness to experience predicted three in females and two in males. Compared to kinesiology majors (n = 202), PE majors (n = 98) were statistically significantly higher in extraversion, enjoyment, perceived autonomy support, self-efficacy, and positive affect. Motivationally vulnerable students in PE may be those who are more introverted (shy, passive, and reserved) and open to experience (intellectual, creative, unconventional, innovative, and inquisitive). Further, PE majors might be more likely than kinesiology majors to pursue a vocation as a physical educator in part because they are more extraverted and have had more motivating (i.e., enjoyable, autonomy-supportive, performance-based, and self-efficacious) experiences in school-based PE.

Recess and children with disabilities: A mixed-methods pilot study

BACKGROUND It is well-understood that childrens social relationships are intrinsically linked to their overall health trajectories. Recess is the only time in the school day that children are free to play and socialize. Yet research on recess consistently indicates that many school playgrounds are challenged by a social landscape that is not conducive to meaningful play. While all children are susceptible to negative social experiences, children with disabilities are at a heightened risk for exclusion and victimization. OBJECTIVE This study examines this phenomenon specifically within the context of recess. METHOD Participants included 743 students in grades 4-8 who completed an anonymous on-line survey about their recess experiences. The responses of 44 students with disabilities were highlighted for analysis. MANOVA was used to assess sample differences between children who identified as having a disability and those who did not on self-reported recess enjoyment, affect, victimization and belongingness. Descriptive statistics and qualitative analyses were used to support the findings. RESULTS Children with disabilities reported more negative affect and victimization and lower positive affect and belongingness. CONCLUSION Further research is warranted as the results indicate that children with disabilities are more vulnerable than their non-disabled peers during recess. Studies that explore the context of recess may provide further insights as to best practices.

Early Validation Evidence of a Canadian Practitioner-Based Assessment of Physical Literacy in Physical Education: Passport for Life.

Physical and Health Education Canada has developed and implemented a formative, criterion-referenced, and practitioner-based national (Canadian) online educational assessment and support resource called Passport for Life (PFL). It was developed to support the awareness and advancement of physical literacy among PE students and teachers. PFL consists of three assessments for each of the four components (active participation, fitness, movement, and living skills). The aim of this study was to uncover initial validation evidence for its current uses using four of the five broad guidelines (content, response processes, internal structure, relations with other variables) for establishing satisfactory score validity as established by the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. We conducted a pilot test with 860 students in Grades 4 and 5 in 2013–2014. We analyzed these data, along with data collected across 2 years for Grades 3 to 6 (n = 1,036 in 2013–2014 and 1,254 in 2014–2015) and Grades 7 to 9 (n = 1,793 in 2013–2014 and 1,151 in 2014–2015). A portion (15 to 25%) of these students completed some of the assessments a second time in each of these years. Validation evidence included the development of PFL by a number of domain experts, the nature and format of the components and scales relative to existing literature and evidence, the administrative procedures to guide teachers to implement the assessments, the alignment of items with each component construct and scale, teacher feedback, and positive and significant relations and temporal (predictive) consistency over the 2 years within and across scales and components. These results provide general support for the PFL and its intended use and highlight several cautions and recommendations. Subscribe to TPE