Kimberley L. Gammage

The Relationship Between the Drive for Muscularity and Muscle Dysmorphia in Male and Female Weight Trainers

Robert, CA, Munroe-Chandler, KJ, and Gammage, KL. The relationship between the drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in male and female weight trainers. J Strength Cond Res 23(6): 1656-1662, 2009-Muscle dysmorphia is a form of body dysmorphic disorder in which individuals have a pathological preoccupation with their muscularity and, more specifically, an extreme fear that their bodies are too small. Relatively few empirical studies have been completed on muscle dysmorphia, and even fewer studies on the relationship between the drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in men and women. The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between the drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in male (n = 55) and female (n = 59) recreational weight trainers. Results revealed that the behavior and diet subscales of the drive for muscularity significantly predicted muscle dysmorphia in males and females accounting for 69% and 46% of the total variance, respectively. Although the overall scores of muscle dysmorphia do not indicate clinical levels, these findings suggest that behaviors such as arranging ones schedule around his/her training regimen and dieting in order to gain muscle predict characteristics of muscle dysmorphia in men and women.

Osteoporosis health beliefs and knowledge in college students: the role of dietary restraint.

This study investigated the relationship between dietary restraint (DR) and osteoporosis-related knowledge and beliefs in college women and men. A total of 517 university students completed measures of osteoporosis knowledge, perceived susceptibility to and severity of osteoporosis, barriers to and benefits of calcium and exercise, health motivation, exercise and calcium self-efficacy, and DR. Two MANOVAs were conducted to examine differences between high and low dietary restrainers on osteoporosis beliefs and knowledge. For women, HR scored higher on perceived susceptibility to, and severity of, osteoporosis, calcium barriers, and health motivation; for men, HR scored lower on exercise benefits. These results suggest that DR may be related to osteoporosis beliefs and knowledge differently for men and women.

Gender Differences in Osteoporosis Health Beliefs and Knowledge and Their Relation to Vigorous Physical Activity in University Students.

Abstract Objective: The purpose of this cross-sectional investigation was to examine (1) gender differences in osteoporosis-related knowledge and beliefs and (2) if these beliefs could predict vigorous physical activity behavior in university students. Participants: Male (n = 176) and female (n = 351) university students participated in the study. Methods: Participants completed self-report measures of osteoporosis knowledge and health beliefs and vigorous physical activity. Results: Regardless of gender, osteoporosis knowledge was relatively poor. Women reported higher knowledge, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, and calcium barriers, and lower exercise self-efficacy than men. Regression analyses showed that for women, perceived susceptibility, health motivation, and exercise self-efficacy predicted vigorous physical activity, whereas for men, exercise barriers was the only predictor. Conclusions: Gender differences in osteoporosis health beliefs appear to be greater in older adults than college-aged students. Interventions designed to increase vigorous physical activity may want to target different beliefs for men and women.

Predicting osteoporosis prevention behaviors: health beliefs and knowledge.

OBJECTIVES To investigate whether the expanded Health Belief Model (EHBM) could predict calcium intake and physical activity in adolescent girls. METHODS Participants self-reported calcium intake, physical activity, and osteoporosis health beliefs. Regression analysis examined the relationship between these beliefs and behaviors. RESULTS Calcium self-efficacy, calcium barriers, and osteoporosis knowledge predicted calcium intake, whereas exercise self-efficacy and health motivation predicted physical activity. CONCLUSIONS The EHBM appears to be useful in predicting osteoporosis prevention behaviors in adolescent girls. Interventions should focus on identifying barriers to calcium consumption and physical activity and increasing beliefs in the ability overcome them.

Re-Examination of the Factor Structure and Composition of the Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire (SPEQ)

The purpose of the present study was to re-examine the factorial integrity of the 11-item two factor Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire (SPEQ; Conroy, Motl, & Hall, 2000). Initial attempts to confirm the factor structure and composition in a Canadian university sample were unsuccessful. Subsequent scale reconstitution yielded an 8-item model, which retained the two original factors labeled impression motivation and impression construction. Cross-validation of the reconstituted model in both a Canadian and a New Zealand sample produced an adequate approximation of the data, but conceptual problems with both the impression construction and impression motivation subscales were identified. Specifically, the SPEQ items tended to focus too much on physical appearance as both a self-presentational motive and behavior. Several items also confounded these two constructs. Thus, although the SPEQ represents an important first step in investigating the role of self-presentation in exercise behavior, further work must continue in order to develop a psychometrically sound instrument.

The effects of leader gender on self-presentational concerns in exercise

The present study examined the impact of the exercise leaders gender on the self-presentational concerns of women in a live exercise class. Eighty-seven college-aged non- or infrequent exercisers participated in a group exercise class led by either a female or male instructor. Participants completed measures of Self-Presentational Efficacy (SPE), State Social Anxiety (SSA) and State Social Physique Anxiety (SPA-S) prior to and following completion of a group exercise class. A repeated measures Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), with time as the within-subjects factor and leader gender as the between-subjects factor, was conducted. A significant main effect for time was found (F(3, 80) = 19.65, p < 0.001). Estimated marginal means indicated that all participants reported significantly higher SPE and lower SSA and SPA-S post-exercise. Completing an exercise class may override any self-presentational concerns that can arise from the exercise environment. Future studies should adopt ecologically valid research designs to gain a clearer picture of self-presentational concerns in exercise classes.

“It's all about acceptance”: A qualitative study exploring a model of positive body image for people with spinal cord injury

Using modified constructivist grounded theory, the purpose of the present study was to explore positive body image experiences in people with spinal cord injury. Nine participants (five women, four men) varying in age (21-63 years), type of injury (C3-T7; complete and incomplete), and years post-injury (4-36 years) were recruited. The following main categories were found: body acceptance, body appreciation and gratitude, social support, functional gains, independence, media literacy, broadly conceptualizing beauty, inner positivity influencing outer demeanour, finding others who have a positive body image, unconditional acceptance from others, religion/spirituality, listening to and taking care of the body, managing secondary complications, minimizing pain, and respect. Interestingly, there was consistency in positive body image characteristics reported in this study with those found in previous research, demonstrating universality of positive body image. However, unique characteristics (e.g., resilience, functional gains, independence) were also reported demonstrating the importance of exploring positive body image in diverse groups.

Manipulating balance perceptions in healthy young adults

This study was designed to manipulate balance efficacy using verbal persuasion to investigate its influence on perceived and actual balance in healthy young adults (n=46). Participants completed two balance tasks and were then randomized to either a high (performance within the top 10% for age and gender) or low (performance within the bottom 10% for age and gender) balance efficacy group, regardless of actual balance. Following the performance feedback, participants completed the same two balance tasks. Participants rated their balance efficacy prior to all tasks, and their perceived stability following all tasks. Trunk movement was recorded during each task to provide an estimate of actual balance. Results showed that the manipulation failed to alter balance efficacy in either group. However, participants in the good balance information group reported greater stability than those in the poor balance information group following the performance feedback, despite no changes in actual balance. These results suggest that verbal persuasion, independent of changes in balance efficacy or actual balance, can modify perceptions of stability in healthy young adults.

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Self-Presentational Efficacy Scale.

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Self-Presentational Efficacy Scale (SPES) developed by Gammage, Hall, and Martin Ginis (2004). University students (196 men and 269 women) completed the SPES and measures of social physique anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and physical activity. Participants also completed the SPES a second time. A series of multivariate data analyses were conducted to examine the SPESs factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a 3-factor model, with each factor representing a distinct latent variable. Acceptable internal consistency and test–retest reliability were found. Evidence of concurrent validity with respect to sex and exercise status was demonstrated. Convergent validity was also shown, as relationships to exercise participation and self-presentational anxiety were found. Future research should assess the reliability and validity of the SPES in other samples and the relative and unique contribution of the three factors in predicting exercise-related outcomes.

Relative importance of body composition, osteoporosis-related behaviors, and parental income on bone speed of sound in adolescent females

IntroductionAdolescence provides a unique opportunity to employ strategies aimed at optimizing peak bone mass yet there are limited studies on the relationship between specific social constructs, osteoporosis-related behaviors, and bone health status in adolescent females. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between bone speed of sound (SOS) and body composition, osteoporosis-related health behaviors, and parental income in adolescent females.MethodsFour hundred forty-two female students in grades 9–12 from schools in Southern Ontario, Canada were measured for height, body mass, and percent body fat and completed a battery of instruments to assess osteoporosis-related health behaviors. Bone SOS was measured by transaxial quantitative ultrasound at the distal radius and midtibia.ResultsPercent body fat was a negative correlate of tibial SOS. No significant correlation was found between physical activity and bone SOS yet physical activity was negatively related to adiposity. Hierarchical regression showed that age and percent body fat were the most important predictors of the variance in tibial SOS scores, with calcium intake having a weaker, yet significant, relationship. Age was the only statistically significant predictor of radial SOS. Users of oral contraceptives had higher radial SOS when controlling for age. Higher parental income was not associated with bone SOS but positive associations between parental income, daily calcium intake, and weekly physical activity were noted.ConclusionsBone SOS is reduced in adolescent females with increased adiposity, whereas it is positively influenced by oral contraceptives and daily calcium intake.