Kevin M. Beaver

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Levels of Self-Control and Delinquent Peer Affiliation Results from a Longitudinal Sample of Adolescent Twins

Despite the fact that low self-control and exposure to delinquent peers are two of the most robust and consistent predictors of crime, delinquency, and antisocial behavior, much remains unknown about what causes self-control to develop and what causes youths to befriend antisocial peers. This study estimated the relative effects of environmental and genetic factors on levels of self-control and contact with delinquent peers in a sample of twins from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). DeFries-Fulker analysis of the Add Health data revealed that both self-control and contact with drug-using friends were influenced by genetic factors and the nonshared environment, whereas the shared environment exhibited relatively small and inconsistent effects. Implications for self-control theory and social learning theory are discussed.

Evidence of Negligible Parenting Influences on Self‐Control, Delinquent Peers, and Delinquency in a Sample of Twins

Behavioral genetic findings continue to call into question the dominant role of parental influence. Utilizing a sample of twins from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we assess the association between parenting behaviors and child self‐control, delinquent peer formation, and delinquency. Our results indicate that genetic influences and non‐shared environmental influences account for variation in these outcomes. We discuss these findings as they relate to theorizing about the role and function of parenting in the etiology of unique traits and behaviors.

Self-control as an executive function: reformulating Gottfredson and Hirschi's parental socialization thesis

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), levels of self-control are determined by parental management techniques, not by biological and genetic influences. Recent behavioral genetic and neuroscientific research challenges this view and reveals that biogenic factors are largely responsible for the development of self-control. The current article builds off this body of literature and argues that Gottfredson and Hirschis parental socialization thesis should be reformulated to recognize that self-control is just one part of a larger constellation of executive functions that are modulated by the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Using a sample of about 3,000 children, this reformulated thesis was tested by examining whether neuropsychological deficits are predictive of parental and teacher reports of the childs level of self-control. Results revealed that measures of neuropsychological deficits were associated with variability in childhood self-control. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

A gene × gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial behavior in males

BackgroundAntisocial behaviors are complex polygenic phenotypes that are due to a multifactorial arrangement of genetic polymorphisms. Little empirical research, however, has been undertaken that examines gene × gene interactions in the etiology of conduct disorder and antisocial behavior. This study examined whether adolescent conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior were related to the dopamine D2 receptor polymorphism (DRD2) and the dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4).MethodsA sample of 872 male participants from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) completed self-report questionnaires that tapped adolescent conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior. DNA was genotyped for DRD2 and DRD4.ResultsMultivariate regression analysis revealed that neither DRD2 nor DRD4 had significant independent effects on conduct disorder or antisocial behavior. However, DRD2 interacted with DRD4 to predict variation in adolescent conduct disorder and in adult antisocial behavior.ConclusionThe results suggest that a gene × gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with the development of conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior in males.

Monoamine oxidase A genotype is associated with gang membership and weapon use

CONTEXT A functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene has been found to be associated with a broad range of antisocial phenotypes, including physical violence. At the same time, it is well known that gang members represent some of the most serious violent offenders. Even so, no research has ever examined the association between MAOA and gang membership. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study is to examine the association between MAOA and gang membership and between MAOA and weapon use. DESIGN We examined the effects of MAOA by using a molecular genetic association research design. SETTING A nonclinical sample was used in this study. PARTICIPANTS Participants were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1155 females, 1041 males). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The outcome measures of this study are gang membership and weapon use. RESULTS The low MAOA activity alleles conferred an increased risk of joining a gang and using a weapon in a fight for males but not for females. Moreover, among male gang members, those who used weapons in a fight were more likely to have a low MAOA activity allele when compared with male gang members who do not use weapons in a fight. CONCLUSIONS Male carriers of low MAOA activity alleles are at risk for becoming a gang member and, once a gang member, are at risk for using weapons in a fight.

The Intersection of Genes and Neuropsychological Deficits in the Prediction of Adolescent Delinquency and Low Self-Control

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime, Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy theory, and Caspi et al.’s Gene × Environment study are three of the most influential pieces of contemporary criminological scholarship. Even so, there has been little attempt to integrate and empirically assess these three perspectives simultaneously. This article addresses this gap in the literature by analyzing phenotypic and genotypic data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). The results revealed that all three perspectives have considerable empirical support, where neuropsychological deficits interact with the MAOA genotype to predict adolescent delinquency and levels of self-control for White males. The theoretical implications of the findings are noted.

Delinquent Peer Group Formation: Evidence of a Gene X Environment Correlation

Emerging evidence suggests that variants of specific genes may influence some youths to seek out or associate with antisocial peers. Using genotypic data (N = 1,816) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (J. R. Udry, 1998, 2003), the authors tested this possibility. They found that the 10R allele of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene was associated with self-reported delinquent peer affiliation for male adolescents from high-risk environments (β range = .13-.14) despite controlling for delinquent involvement, self-control, and drug and alcohol use. The authors discuss the importance of using a biosocial framework to examine issues related to adolescent development.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Low Self-control

There is a vast line of literature showing that antisocial behaviors and personality traits are transmitted across generational lines. Given the ascendancy of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime, it is somewhat surprising that no research has examined whether levels of self-control are passed from parent to child. The authors examine this possibility by analyzing data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. The results of the analysis revealed that maternal levels of self-control and paternal levels of self-control were predictive of the child’s levels of self-control. Supplemental analysis revealed that these effects were not mediated by key criminogenic risk factors. Moreover, there was also evidence indicating that people mate assortatively on a range of antisocial characteristics, including low self-control. Implications of the study are noted and discussed.

DEMONSTRATING THE VALIDITY OF TWIN RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY

In a recent article published in Criminology, Burt and Simons (2014) claimed that the statistical violations of the classical twin design render heritability studies useless. Claiming quantitative genetics is “fatally flawed” and describing the results generated from these models as “preposterous,” Burt and Simons took the unprecedented step to call for abandoning heritability studies and their constituent findings. We show that their call for an “end to heritability studies” was premature, misleading, and entirely without merit. Specifically, we trace the history of behavioral genetics and show that 1) the Burt and Simons critique dates back 40 years and has been subject to a broad array of empirical investigations, 2) the violation of assumptions in twin models does not invalidate their results, and 3) Burt and Simons created a distorted and highly misleading portrait of behavioral genetics and those who use quantitative genetic approaches. “The flaws of twin studies are not fatal, but rather seem no worse (and may be better) than the flaws of the typical causal study that relies on observational data.” (Felson, 2012: ii)

A biosocial explanation of delinquency abstention.

BACKGROUND One of the more influential criminological theories advanced in recent years is Moffitts developmental taxonomy. A line of research has tested the core propositions from her theory regarding the causes of life-course persistent offenders and the causes of adolescence-limited offenders, but very little research has investigated whether Moffitts explanation of delinquency abstention is supported empirically. AIM To examine the biosocial correlates of delinquency abstention. METHOD We used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine the effects of two dopamine receptor genes (the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) and the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4)), drug-using peers, neighbourhood problems, low self-control, public assistance, age, race, and gender on delinquency abstention. The statistical models were calculated by employing binary logistic regression. RESULTS Analysis of the Add Health data revealed that exposure to drug-using peers and levels of self-control were associated with abstention from delinquency. In addition, there was some evidence suggesting that DRD2 and DRD4 had protective effects against delinquent involvement for males. CONCLUSION A multifactorial arrangement of environmental and genetic factors contributes to delinquency abstention.