Khursheed Wadia

French feminism: national and international perspectives

During the 1980s, the French media proclaimed the death of feminism, but although the 1970s womens movement had demobilised, feminists were still active in issue-specific groups, in academia, and within the institutions of the state. Paying careful attention to the difficulties associated with defining feminisms and national feminisms in particular, this article situates an analysis of French feminism since the 1980s in a context of growing international feminist dialogue and activism and a renewed debate about the meaning of feminism. It focuses on the question of separatism and on changing relations between theory and practice, asking how feminists can act for change and form effective coalitions with other movements. It argues that feminism is plural and often fragmented and diffuse. Feminism is shaped by local social, economic, political and cultural factors and by exchanges of people and ideas, and any analysis of feminist theory and activism needs to take these into account.

New British feminisms, UK Feminista and young women’s activism:

Over the past few years we have witnessed a sharp resurgence in feminist activism as young women have become increasingly interested in feminist ideas as a means of making sense of their lives. This resurgence in feminist practice is evidenced by the formation of myriad groups and networks across Britain and the initiation of various feminist projects and campaigns, reported regularly and widely in local and national media. This article examines the renaissance of this new feminism through the example of one of the most active and publicly visible organisations, UK Feminista. It draws on ethnographic research into young women’s feminist activism, exploring the emergence of UK Feminista as part of this new wave of feminist activism in Britain. We argue that the wave metaphor has multifarious meanings and that to understand how the political practice of a small feminist organisation contributes to the amplification of this wave of feminist activism it is helpful to draw on concepts developed within social movement theory such as cycles of protest, repertoires of action and collective identities. We show how UK Feminista mobilises young women and provides resources to existing and new feminist organisations and activist groups, commenting particularly on its use of the Internet and social media as a mobilising device. We explore the role of the Internet in young women’s engagement with feminism, the forms of activism in which they take part and the importance of feminist cultural memory to the construction of a collective feminist identity. Our analysis reveals the significant part played by a small mobilising structure, UK Feminista, in the resurgence of feminist activism in the UK.

Refugees, Gender, and Citizenship in Britain and France

This chapter1 explores the question of citizenship-building processes in relation to women asylum seekers2 and refugees3, and their civic participation not only in discrete refugee4 women’s community associations but also in (longer established) migrant women’s community associations.5 Its aim is fourfold: first, it discusses the relationship between the question of citizenship, refugee women, and their associations; second, it presents an overview of the establishment and development of refugee women’s associations in Britain and France; third, it examines the forms of activities and activism in which refugee women engage; and finally, it asks what conclusions can be drawn about these forms of activities/activism in terms of drawing this section of the population into a more inclusive model of citizenship.

Gender and class in Britain and France

This article examines the treatment of womens oppression in feminist theory, focusing on the engagement of second wave feminists with the concept of class and its relation to gender. This examination is carried out with reference to British and French feminisms, identifying the main trends and shifts that have developed over the last 35 years and noting that while these are undoubtedly influenced by a particular national context they are also shaped by increasing European integration and social, political and cultural exchanges at a global level. The authors find evidence of a number of similarities in the questions that feminist theorists have asked in Britain and France but also demonstrate that there are significant differences. They conclude that areas of convergent theoretical interests will extend along with cross-border flows of peoples and information.

Politics and Activisms

This chapter investigates and explains the political participation and civic engagement of Muslim women in Britain and France. It establishes a typology of participation based on primary research findings and identifies the structures and processes through which Muslim women’s action and activism takes place; for example, formal and conventional processes typified by elections and voting and institutional structures such as political parties, elected assemblies and state executives as well as various unconventional forms epitomised in street protest, political consumerism, public service and community politics and digital activism. The above categories of activity constitute the landscape of political participation and civic engagement in which two types are highlighted: voting in elections and activism through organisations, groups and campaigns in the third sector. As revealed by our research, these are among the most common types of participation among women from Muslim communities in Britain and France.

Ethnic Group and Islam

This chapter first examines the relationship between Muslim women, the ethnic group and Islam, focusing on the barriers and facilitators to their action in these two spheres. In the ethnic group, Muslim women’s role and position is governed by traditional, patriarchal norms which frequently limit their activity in the public sphere although the ethnic group can also provide protection against an often hostile majority society. Second, this chapter explores the women’s relationship and positioning vis-a-vis Islam and the Muslim group which is linked to their autonomisation. On the one hand, Islam encompasses dimensions which are absent in the ethnic group and on the other hand many of the women themselves establish a clear differentiation between the two entities, often using the former as a tool to challenge the latter.

Migrations, Demographics and Socio-Economic Profiles

This chapter examines the main post-1945 migrations from Muslim-majority countries, especially former colonies, to Britain and France as types of migratory flows (labour, family reunification or refugee) prefigure the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of communities which settle and evolve in any country. Focusing on women, it gives an account of the demographic features of Muslim populations in both countries and presents a socio-economic profile which includes their position in employment and education. It traces the emergence of ethnicity and religion as census categories in the UK which allow the gathering of demographic and social data by ethnicity and religion and contrasts this with France where collection of such data is proscribed on the grounds that attributing a particular identity to citizens (and non-citizens) runs counter to French republican universalist principles. This explains why the data is more complete in the British case.

Muslims and Women in Britain and France

This chapter delineates the societal and institutional context surrounding the participation of women from Muslim communities. Two aspects influence their action in the public domain: that of Islam and Muslims and their relation with majority society women’s movements and politics. First, the evolution of policies and conceptualisation of Muslim populations in their interaction with majority societies are examined, broadly in the context of British multiculturalism and of French laicite. Islam and ‘Muslim’ emerged as a primary identification in the 1990s, in Britain with the War on Terror; in France through controversies about women’s Islamic dress. Second, this chapter considers the relationship between Muslim women and mainstream British and French women’s movements, exploring to what extent the issues they raise are integrated within women’s movement politics and feminist demands made of the state to improve women’s lives and how this relationship influences their political and civic action.

Muslim Women and Politics: Analytical Framework

This chapter considers the question of Muslim women’s involvement in politics within a framework drawing on a critical feminist standpoint which places this population centre-stage and gives voice to their thinking and actions in order to produce knowledge which will impact their lives positively; Margaret Archer’s social realist approach to agency and structure where her concept of emergence and emergent properties is instrumental in analysing Muslim women’s social and political action and Alain Touraine’s sociological intervention (SI) methodology which allows respondents to contribute to interpretation(s) of their own situation and acknowledges the subjective involvement of the researcher(s). This chapter is organised on the basis of the key reference spheres to which the women relate, identifying these three major spheres which constitute the theatre of their action as majority society, the ethnic group, the Muslim group, all of them being traversed by contradictions within and between them.

Islamic Dress, the War on Terror, Policing Muslim Women

This chapter considers issues of concern to Muslim women. Most important among these is the wearing of Islamic dress in a Western context. This issue was brought up repeatedly by respondents in both countries whether or not they adhered to Islamic dress codes. Hence both country contexts are included in our examination. Also raised frequently by the women and considered here are the War on Terror and the policing of Muslim women by Muslim men. The War on Terror greatly concerned respondents in Britain while the control of Muslim women by Muslim men was of immense concern to respondents in France. This chapter presents Muslim women’s views and also considers their assessment of the impact these issues have on them. It gives voice to Muslim women as a counterpoint to the opinions of those who enjoy influential public platforms, who profess knowledge of Muslim women’s experiences and thinking.