Kieran Kingston

Do multidimensional intrinsic and extrinsic motivation profiles discriminate between athlete scholarship status and gender

Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether levels of multidimensional intrinsic, multidimensional extrinsic motivation and amotivation could accurately discriminate scholarship status and gender in United States collegiate athletes. Participants comprised 82 male (M age = 19.89, SD=1.39) and 90 female (M age = 20.26, SD=1.63) collegiate athletes. Each participant completed a demographic questionnaire and the Sports Motivation Scale (Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N.M., & Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sports Motivation Scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53). Two-group discriminant analysis revealed a significant canonical function correctly classifying 72.8% of the cases into either the scholarship or non-scholarship group. The least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation were the strongest contributors to this discrimination. With respect to gender, a significant discriminant function existed, again with the least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation representing the strongest discriminating variables. The results provide converging evidence that rewards such as scholarships can undermine intrinsic motivation. Further, as well as being consistent with theoretical predictions embedded in cognitive evaluation theory, the results of this study suggest that in addition to undermining intrinsic motivation, scholarships could foster non-self-determined forms of motivation.

Prospective study of sport dropout: A motivational analysis as a function of age and gender

Abstract Introduction: This paper aimed to analyse the predictive ability of a self-determination theory (SDT) based model describing competitive sport dropout, and variance as a function of age and gender. Variables included in the model were: psychological need satisfaction, self-determined motivation, perceived conflict between sport and study, intention to practise sport, and dropout. Methods: A prospective study was performed over a period of 19 months. Variables considered as predictors of sport dropout were measured initially, and after 19 months persistence or dropout was assessed. The sample consisted of 857 athletes aged 11–19 (mean value 15.3; standard deviation = 1.77), 680 males and 177 females. Results: Structural equation modelling illustrated support for an “alternative” model that incorporated a direct relationship between psychological need satisfaction and intention to practise sport. Analysis of invariance showed that the model was consistent as a function of age and gender, i.e. no differences were found in regression weights. MANOVA, however, revealed some group differences with respect to the dependent variables. Specifically, in terms of engagement, although assessed at the start of the study, those athletes who persisted at 19 months demonstrated greater need satisfaction, self-determined motivation and intention to practise sport than those who dropped out. Age related differences were also identified: with increased age self-determined motivation and intention to practise sport decreased, while there were no differences in need satisfaction or perceived conflict between sport and study. There were no differences related to gender. Discussion: The results support previous studies that had used SDT to predict sport dropout, specifically those that had reported an inverse relationship between self-determined motivation and perceived conflict between activities. Further, it suggests that other variables (emotional) may play a specific role in predicting intention to continue engagement with sport. Conclusion: The major contribution of the study is in validating a motivational model predicting sport dropout which incorporates perceived conflict and the direct effect of psychological need satisfaction on the intention to practise sport. The invariance of regression weights between age and gender groups suggests that the relationships proposed in the model are universal.

Defining and Contextualizing Robust Sport-Confidence

This study provided a systematic qualitative examination of robust sport-confidence. A focus group (2 male and 2 female participants), and follow-up interviews, with 16 (8 male and 8 female participants) elite individual sport performers, were conducted to define and contextualize the characteristics of robust sport-confidence. Data analysis procedures resulted in a definition of robust sport-confidence and the identification of 6 characteristics of robust sport-confidence. The characteristics abstracted were: multidimensional, malleable, durable, strength of belief, developed, and protective. Overall, robust sport-confidence was conceptualized as a multidimensional set of enduring positive beliefs. Future research and practical implications are discussed.

Attentional focus and performance anxiety: effects on simulated race-driving performance and heart rate variability

Previous studies have demonstrated that an external focus can enhance motor learning compared to an internal focus. The benefits of adopting an external focus are attributed to the use of less effortful automatic control processes, while an internal focus relies upon more effort-intensive consciously controlled processes. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a distal external focus with an internal focus in the acquisition of a simulated driving task and subsequent performance in a competitive condition designed to increase state anxiety. To provide further evidence for the automatic nature of externally controlled movements, the study included heart rate variability (HRV) as an index of mental effort. Sixteen participants completed eight blocks of four laps in either a distal external or internal focus condition, followed by two blocks of four laps in the competitive condition. During acquisition, the performance of both groups improved; however, the distal external focus group outperformed the internal focus group. The poorer performance of the internal focus group was accompanied by a larger reduction in HRV, indicating a greater investment of mental effort. In the competition condition, state anxiety increased, and for both groups, performance improved as a function of the increased anxiety. Increased heart rate and self-reported mental effort accompanied the performance improvement. The distal external focus group also outperformed the internal focus group across both neutral and competitive conditions and this more effective performance was again associated with lower levels of HRV. Overall, the results offer support for the suggestion that an external focus promotes a more automatic mode of functioning. In the competitive condition, both foci enhanced performance and while the improved performance may have been achieved at the expense of greater compensatory mental effort, this was not reflected in HRV scores.