Kim Harich

A stable non-classical metallofullerene family.

In the evolving field of fullerenes, nanotubes and endohedral metallofullerenes, the isolated-pentagon rule (IPR) is sacrosanct — exceptions have been predicted, but no bare carbon cages with adjacent pentagons have been characterized. Small organic molecules with metal-stabilized fused five-membered rings (pentalenes) have been created, however, and here we describe a family of non-classical endohedral metallofullerenes with the general structure AxSc3−xN@C 68 (where x = 0–2, A is a rare-earth metal, Sc is scandium and N is nitrogen) that has a non-IPR cage of only 68 carbon atoms containing annelated five-membered rings. This internal ring network is metal-stabilized and is accessible for external organic reaction chemistry.

Solid dispersion of quercetin in cellulose derivative matrices influences both solubility and stability.

Amorphous solid dispersions (ASD) of quercetin (Que) in cellulose derivative matrices, carboxymethylcellulose acetate butyrate (CMCAB), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and cellulose acetate adipate propionate (CAAdP) were prepared with the goal of identifying an ASD that effectively increased Que aqueous solution concentration. Crystalline quercetin and Que/poly(vinylpyrrolidinone) (PVP) ASD were evaluated for comparison. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRPD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to examine the crystallinity of ASDs, physical mixtures (PM) and quercetin. ASDs were amorphous up to 50 wt% Que. Que stability against crystallization and solution concentrations from these ASDs were significantly higher than those observed for physical mixtures and crystalline Que. PVP stabilizes against both Que degradation and recrystallization; in contrast, these carboxylated cellulose derivatives inhibit recrystallization but release Que slowly. PVP ASDs afforded fast and complete drug release, while ASDs using these three cellulose derivatives provide slow, incomplete, pH-triggered drug release.

Gd2@C79N: Isolation, Characterization, and Monoadduct Formation of a Very Stable Heterofullerene with a Magnetic Spin State of S = 15/2

The dimetallic endohedral heterofullerene (EHF), Gd(2)@C(79)N, was prepared and isolated in a relatively high yield when compared with the earlier reported heterofullerene, Y(2)@C(79)N. Computational (DFT), chemical reactivity, Raman, and electrochemical studies all suggest that the purified Gd(2)@C(79)N, with the heterofullerene cage, (C(79)N)(5-) has comparable stability with other better known isoelectronic metallofullerene (C(80))(6-) cage species (e.g., Gd(3)N@C(80)). These results describe an exceptionally stable paramagnetic molecule with low chemical reactivity with the unpaired electron spin density localized on the internal diatomic gadolinium cluster and not on the heterofullerene cage. EPR studies confirm that the spin state of Gd(2)@C(79)N is characterized by a half-integer spin quantum number of S = 15/2. The spin (S = ½) on the N atom of the fullerene cage and two octet spins (S = 7/2) of two encapsulated gadoliniums are coupled with each other in a ferromagnetic manner with a small zero-field splitting parameter D. Because the central line of Gd(2)@C(79)N is due to the Kramers doublet with a half-integer spin quantum number of S = 15/2, this relatively sharp line is prominent and the anisotropic nature of the line is weak. Interestingly, in contrast with most Gd(3+) ion environments, the central EPR line (g = 1.978) is observable even at room temperature in a toluene solution. Finally, we report the first EHF derivative, a diethyl bromomalonate monoadduct of Gd(2)@C(79)N, which was prepared and isolated via a modified Bingel-Hirsch reaction.

89Y and 13C NMR Cluster and Carbon Cage Studies of an Yttrium Metallofullerene Family, Y3N@C2n (n = 40−43)

The members of a new family of yttrium trimetallic nitride-templated (TNT) endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs), Y(3)N@C(2n) (n = 40-43), have been synthesized and purified. On the basis of experimental and computational (13)C NMR studies, we propose cage structures for Y(3)N@I(h)-C(80) (IPR allowed), Y(3)N@D(5h)-C(80) (IPR allowed), Y(3)N@C(s)-C(82) (non-IPR), Y(3)N@C(s)-C(84) (non-IPR), and Y(3)N@D(3)-C(86) (IPR allowed). A significant result is the limited number of isomers found for each carbon cage. For example, there are 24 isolated pentagon rule (IPR) and 51 568 non-IPR structures possible for the C(84) cage, but only one major isomer of Y(3)N@C(s)-C(84) was found. The current study confirms the unique role of the trimetallic nitride (M(3)N)(6+) cluster template in the Kratschmer-Huffman electric-arc process for fullerene cage size and high symmetry isomer selectivity. This study reports the first (89)Y NMR results for Y(3)N@I(h)-C(80,) Y(3)N@C(s)(51365)-C(84), and Y(3)N@D(3)(19)-C(86), which reveal a progression from isotropic to restricted (Y(3)N)(6+) cluster motional processes. Even more surprising is the sensitivity of the (89)Y NMR chemical shift parameter to subtle changes in the electronic environment at each yttrium nuclide in the (Y(3)N)(6+) cluster (more than 200 ppm for these EMFs). This (89)Y NMR study suggests that (89)Y NMR will evolve as a powerful tool for cluster motional studies of EMFs.

Highly Regioselective Derivatization of Trimetallic Nitride Templated Endohedral Metallofullerenes via a Facile Photochemical Reaction

Photochemically generated benzyl radicals react with Sc(3)N@C(80)-I(h) to produce a dibenzyl adduct [Sc(3)N@C(80)(CH(2)C(6)H(5))(2)] in 82% yield and high regioselectivity. The adducts (1)H spectrum revealed high symmetry: only one AB pattern was observed for the methylene protons. The (13)C NMR spectrum suggested a C(2)-symmetrical structure. DFT calculations reveal that a 1,4-adduct is more favorable than a 1,2-adduct by >10 kcal/mol. The 1,4-structure on [566] ring junctions was unambiguously confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis. UV-vis spectra revealed that the removal of two p orbitals from the pi system of the cage together with the benzylic substituents change the electronic properties of the metallofullerene in a manner similar to those reported for disilirane and trifluoromethyl moieties. Under the same conditions from Lu(3)N@C(80)-I(h) we prepared (63% yield) Lu(3)N@C(80)(CH(2)C(6)H(5))(2), which demonstrated properties similar to the 1,4-dibenzyl adduct of Sc(3)N@C(80)-I(h).

Stability and solubility enhancement of ellagic acid in cellulose ester solid dispersions

Structurally varied, carboxyl-containing cellulose derivatives were evaluated for their ability to form amorphous solid dispersions (ASD) with ellagic acid (EA), in order to improve the solubility of this high-melting, poorly bioavailable, but highly bioactive natural flavonoid compound. ASDs of EA with carboxymethylcellulose acetate butyrate (CMCAB), cellulose acetate adipate propionate (CAAdP), and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS) were prepared, and EA dissolution from these ASDs was compared with that from pure crystalline EA and from EA/poly(vinylpyrrolidinone) (PVP) solid dispersions (SD). Polymer/drug mixtures were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (XRPD), modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The XRPD and FT-IR results indicated that EA was amorphous in solid dispersions with EA concentration up to 25 wt%. The stability against crystallization and solution concentrations of EA from these solid dispersions were significantly higher than those observed for physical mixtures and pure crystalline EA. HPMCAS stabilized EA most effectively, among the polymers tested, against both chemical degradation and recrystallization. The relative ability to solubilize EA from ASDs at pH 6.8 was PVP>>HPMCAS>>CMCAB. EA dissolves from ASD in PVP quickly and completely (maximum 92%) at pH 6.8, but EA is also released from PVP at pH 1.2, and then crystallizes rapidly. Therefore PVP is not a practical candidate for EA ASD. In contrast, the cellulose derivative ASDs show very slow EA release at pH 1.2 (<4%) and faster but still incomplete drug release at pH 6.8 (maximum 35% for HPMCAS SD). The pH-triggered drug release from HPMCAS ASD makes HPMCAS a practical choice for EA solubility enhancement.

Pseudocryptand-Type [2]Pseudorotaxanes Based on Bis(meta-phenylene)-32-Crown-10 Derivatives and Paraquats with Remarkably Improved Association Constants

The first dual component pseudocryptand-type [2]pseudorotaxanes were designed and prepared via the self-assembly of synthetically easily accessible bis(meta-phenylene)-32-crown-10 pyridyl, quinolyl, and naphthyridyl derivatives with paraquat. The formation of the pseudocryptand structures in the complexes remarkably improved the association constant by forming the third pseudobridge via H-bonding with the guest and π-stacking of the heterocyclic units.

Syntheses and Structures of Phenyl-C81-Butyric Acid Methyl Esters (PCBMs) from M3N@C80

Two new 6,6-open phenyl-C(81)-butyric acid methyl ester metallofulleroids, M(3)N@C(80)PCBM (M = Sc, Y), were synthesized by diazoalkane addition reactions and fully characterized. The results demonstrate that the reactive sites are the same for M(3)N@C(80) (M = Sc, Y) but dramatically different from that of C(60).

Overexpression of AtLOV1 in Switchgrass Alters Plant Architecture, Lignin Content, and Flowering Time

Background Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a prime candidate crop for biofuel feedstock production in the United States. As it is a self-incompatible polyploid perennial species, breeding elite and stable switchgrass cultivars with traditional breeding methods is very challenging. Translational genomics may contribute significantly to the genetic improvement of switchgrass, especially for the incorporation of elite traits that are absent in natural switchgrass populations. Methodology/Principal Findings In this study, we constitutively expressed an Arabidopsis NAC transcriptional factor gene, LONG VEGETATIVE PHASE ONE (AtLOV1), in switchgrass. Overexpression of AtLOV1 in switchgrass caused the plants to have a smaller leaf angle by changing the morphology and organization of epidermal cells in the leaf collar region. Also, overexpression of AtLOV1 altered the lignin content and the monolignol composition of cell walls, and caused delayed flowering time. Global gene-expression analysis of the transgenic plants revealed an array of responding genes with predicted functions in plant development, cell wall biosynthesis, and flowering. Conclusions/Significance To our knowledge, this is the first report of a single ectopically expressed transcription factor altering the leaf angle, cell wall composition, and flowering time of switchgrass, therefore demonstrating the potential advantage of translational genomics for the genetic improvement of this crop.

Shiga-like toxin subunit B (SLTB)-enhanced delivery of chlorin e6 (Ce6) improves cell killing

Abstract We used Shiga-like toxin B subunit (SLTB) to deliver the photosensitizer, chlorin e6 (Ce6), to Vero cells expressing the Gb3 receptor. Our aim was to provide an example of carrier-enhanced photodynamic cell killing with which to start a systematic consideration of photosensitizer delivery at the subcellular level. SLTB, in contrast to many other potential protein carriers, is delivered intracellularly to the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Ce6 was chosen both for its phototoxic properties and its potential for covalent conjugation with SLTB. Ce6-SLTB after cleanup contained ≤10% noncovalently bound Ce6. The noncovalent binding of porphyrins and chlorins to protein conjugates has been well documented, and hence the effective cleanup procedure is a significant accomplishment. We demonstrate that Ce6-SLTB enhances delivery of Ce6 to target cells as compared to free Ce6. In Vero cells, Ce6-SLTB was over an order of magnitude more photodynamically toxic than free Ce6. Moreover, we show that in the case of Ce6-SLTB, photosensitizer accumulation is in a combination of subcellular sites including mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ER and plasma membrane. The occurrence in nature of diverse B subunit binding sites and the possibilities of varied intracellular delivery make optimized use of B subunit carriers attractive.