Kimberly N. Sloman

EFFECTS OF TREATMENT INTEGRITY FAILURES DURING DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR: A TRANSLATIONAL MODEL

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is used frequently as a treatment for problem behavior. Previous studies on treatment integrity failures during DRA suggest that the intervention is robust, but research has not yet investigated the effects of different types of integrity failures. We examined the effects of two types of integrity failures on DRA, starting with a human operant procedure and extending the results to children with disabilities in a school setting. Human operant results (Experiment 1) showed that conditions involving reinforcement for problem behavior were more detrimental than failing to reinforce appropriate behavior alone, and that condition order affected the results. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated the effects of combined errors and sequence effects during actual treatment implementation.

Practical implications of data reliability and treatment integrity monitoring.

Data reliability and treatment integrity have important implications for clinical practice because they can affect clinicians’ abilities to accurately judge the efficacy of behavioral interventions. Reliability and integrity data also allow clinicians to provide feedback to caregivers and to adjust interventions as needed. We present reasons why reliability and integrity measures are paramount in clinical work, discuss events that may result in decreased reliability or integrity, and provide several efficient means for collecting data and calculating reliability and integrity measures.

Concurrent reinforcement schedules for problem behavior and appropriate behavior: experimental applications of the matching law.

This study evaluated how children who exhibited functionally equivalent problem and appropriate behavior allocate responding to experimentally arranged reinforcer rates. Relative reinforcer rates were arranged on concurrent variable-interval schedules and effects on relative response rates were interpreted using the generalized matching equation. Results showed that relative rates of responding approximated relative rates of reinforcement. Finally, interventions for problem behavior were evaluated and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and extinction procedures were implemented to increase appropriate behavior and decrease problem behavior. Practical considerations for the application of the generalized matching equation specific to severe problem behavior are discussed, including difficulties associated with defining a reinforced response, and obtaining steady state responding in clinical settings.

ANALYSES OF RESPONSE-STIMULUS SEQUENCES IN DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS

Descriptive observations were conducted to record problem behavior displayed by participants and to record antecedents and consequences delivered by caregivers. Next, functional analyses were conducted to identify reinforcers for problem behavior. Then, using data from the descriptive observations, lag-sequential analyses were conducted to examine changes in the probability of environmental events across time in relation to occurrences of problem behavior. The results of the lag-sequential analyses were interpreted in light of the results of functional analyses. Results suggested that events identified as reinforcers in a functional analysis followed behavior in idiosyncratic ways: after a range of delays and frequencies. Thus, it is possible that naturally occurring reinforcement contingencies are arranged in ways different from those typically evaluated in applied research. Further, these complex response-stimulus relations can be represented by lag-sequential analyses. However, limitations to the lag-sequential analysis are evident.

Behavioral Assessment of Self-Injury

This is an update of a chapter from a prior version of this volume (Matson, 2009). Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a behavior disorder that can range in severity from self-inflicted mild bruising and abrasions to life-threatening tissue damage (Carr Psychol Bull 84:800–816, 1977). The focus of this chapter is on SIB displayed by individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD), including autism. Although SIB occurs in psychiatric patients (e.g., self-mutilation) and in some otherwise typically developing adolescents and adults (e.g., self-cutting), these variations of SIB will not be the focus here. In addition, this chapter will focus on assessment rather than treatment. Finally, the specific focus is behavioral assessment rather than medical, biological, or psychiatric (diagnostic) assessment.

Assessing the value of token reinforcement for individuals with autism

The use of token systems has been supported across a variety of populations, but little research has evaluated the reinforcing value of token systems for individuals with autism. We used progressive-ratio schedules to compare the reinforcing value of an established token system, primary reinforcement, and tokens unpaired with reinforcement. Token systems were variably reinforcing for 2 students with autism and more so than primary reinforcement for 1 student. Results support formal assessment of the effectiveness of token systems.

Correspondence between traditional models of functional analysis and a functional analysis of manding behavior

Functional analysis procedures have been effectively used to determine the maintaining variables for challenging behavior and subsequently develop effective interventions. However, fear of evoking dangerous topographies of maladaptive behavior and concerns for reinforcing infrequent maladaptive behavior present challenges for people working in applied settings. The present investigation sought to evaluate the utility of an adjunctive functional analysis model that involved the reinforcement of mands rather than problem behavior and compared the results to traditional functional analyses. The results from the manding analysis yielded results similar to the traditional FA in 3 of 4 cases. These findings suggest that manding analyses may represent a useful assessment tool for difficult to assess problem behavior or for individuals in settings where consultative support is limited.

The Historical Context of Noncontingent Reinforcement as a Behavioral Treatment

Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR) emerged as a behavioral treatment in the early 1990s. In this paper we describe the historical context leading to the development and use of NCR as treatment. There are at least three general historical factors. The main reason the procedure emerged when it did is that functional analysis assessment methods were beginning to influence publication practices for behavioral treatment studies. Treatment studies based on functional analysis outcomes were just beginning to emerge by the late 1980s, so the time was ripe. A second factor is that some other treatment procedures that were logically derived from a functional analysis (e.g., DRO and extinction) had obvious negative side effects, both in terms of practicality (e.g., re-setting a timer every time a target response occurred in DRO) and in terms of dangerous behavioral outcomes (e.g., extinction bursts). A third factor was that there was an empirical basis for the application. Basic behavioral research on time-based schedules and applied research on NCR as a control procedure had already been published. Results of these prior experiments had shown that NCR reduced response rates relative to a response-dependent baseline. In our conclusion, we will propose that NCR research has persisted because the procedure provides a relatively straightforward preparation from which to conduct a range of parametric and component analyses.

A brief assessment for selecting communication modalities for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Abstract Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have impairments in their ability to communicate with others. Estimates indicate that about 25–50% of children with ASD are nonvocal. To address these deficits, a number of augmentative and alternative communication strategies have emerged. Commonly used communication responses have included vocal speech, picture exchange, and manual signs. While these communication strategies have all been shown to be effective in specific clinical instances, the selection of communication topography has generally been based on philosophical preference, rather than on empirical analyses. Relatively little research has evaluated procedures to determine which modality represents a “best fit” with individual learning styles. The purpose of the current investigation was to design a brief assessment model to evaluate the rate of acquisition and preference for different communication modalities for three individuals with ASD. The results show that participants acquired different modalities of communication at different rates and displayed clear preferences for different styles of communication. These findings suggest that this procedure may help to empirically determine which communication system represents a best fit for individual learners.

Assessment and Intervention for Individuals with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood psychiatric disorders. As our understanding of ADHD has evolved, so have assessment and intervention strategies. Several assessment instruments have been developed to properly diagnose individuals with ADHD. Over the years, a number of intervention strategies have emerged for the treatment of ADHD. Considerable empirical support exists for the use of behavioral interventions and medications. Behavioral interventions have sought to address the symptoms of ADHD by targeting the core deficits of the disorder (i.e., impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattentiveness) and identifying environmental causes of the behavior. Medications have been used to treat the deficits associated with ADHD by influencing neurotransmitters in the brain. Both approaches have evidence to support their use. Evaluation procedures should be used to determine the effectiveness of any intervention strategies (i.e., behavioral intervention, medication, or a combination).