Mary Jane Weiss

Hardiness and Social Support as Predictors of Stress in Mothers of Typical Children, Children with Autism, and Children with Mental Retardation

This study assessed the effects of social support and hardiness on the level of stress in mothers of typical children and children with developmental disabilities. One hundred and twenty mothers participated (40 mothers of children with autism, 40 mothers of children with mental retardation, and 40 mothers of typically developing children). Results indicated significant group differences in ratings of depression, anxiety, somatic complaints and burnout. Regression analyses were conducted to determine the best predictors of the dependent measures. Both hardiness and social support were predictive of successful adaptation. The relationships among hardiness, support and coping are discussed.

Differential rates of skill acquisition and outcomes of early intensive behavioral intervention for autism

Intensive behavioral intervention for very young children with autism has received increased attention in recent years. Researchers have documented unprecedented success in educating some young children with autism, although not every child makes dramatic developmental gains. It might be useful to identify early in treatment those children who will benefit most from the current methodology and who might require slight variations in instructional format or curricular focus. The present study suggests that initial learning rates are moderately correlated with treatment outcomes after two years. Among 20 children receiving early, intensive behavioral intervention, initial acquisition of skills was correlated with later learning rates, severity of autism symptomatology and adaptive behavior profiles two years into treatment. Implications are discussed, especially in light of the universal need for intensive intervention in this population. Copyright

Comparison of traditional and trial-based methodologies for conducting functional analyses

Functional analysis represents a sophisticated and empirically supported functional assessment procedure. While these procedures have garnered considerable empirical support, they are often underused in clinical practice. Safety risks resulting from the evocation of maladaptive behavior and the length of time required to conduct functional analyses may deter practitioners from using models of assessment with considerable empirical support. The current study evaluated a trial-based model of functional analysis that limited opportunities to engage in problem behavior and used 1-2 min sessions to shorten analysis time. The results from the trial-based analysis were then compared to the results of traditional functional analyses. Correspondence between both models of assessment was strong. Exact correspondence was observed for 4 of the 5 participants. In addition, the trial-based procedure did not require the repeated reinforcement of maladaptive behavior and results were obtained in 84.8% less time.

Evidence-Based Practice for Autism Spectrum Disorders

Publisher Summary The treatment of autism spectrum disorders remains a very confusing topic for consumers. Claims of effective treatments abound, and few consumers understand how to accurately interpret the available information. As a result researchers and professionals have taken steps to identify the comprehensive programs and focal methods that are most effective in treating autism and its accompanying symptoms. This chapter reviews the current state of information regarding evidence-based treatment for autism. Various definitions of evidence-based treatment and the criteria used to evaluate different treatments are reviewed. Several strategies in applied behavior analysis (ABA) are highlighted, as they clearly have the largest preponderance of evidence supporting their effectiveness. ABA remains the only intervention with substantial documentation of effectiveness. A variety of focal ABA treatments are shown to be highly effective, and evidence exists for the Lovaas/UCLA comprehensive treatment package though more research is needed to provide additional empirical support for this model. ABA is committed to continually increasing knowledge regarding effective intervention. In addition, a variety of strategies that are not empirically validated but which are in common use are reviewed. Finally, recommendations for both professionals advising consumers and for consumers navigating treatment decisions are delineated.

Social Skills and Autism: Understanding and Addressing the Deficits

Social behavior is a core deficit area of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Therefore, considerable literature in the ABA field has been developed to address this problem area. Specific behaviors treated and ABA techniques used will be the focus of the chapter. A critical appraisal of current status and future directions will also be provided.

Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorders

concepts, a directive approach, and family involvement (Anderson & Morris, 2006). Although further research is required to gain a better understanding of diagnosis and treatment of AS, researchers agree that treatment for AS should begin early in development. Because of the high academic functioning of many children with AS, diagnosis can occur later than it does in children with autism (Eisenmajer et al., 1996). Early detection and intervention in areas of social understanding and social skills is essential in the treatment of AS. Again, one should recognize the importance of a detailed assessment of the strengths and deficits of each child to develop the most appropriate individualized education plan. Family members should be involved at all stages of treatment to facilitate generalization of learned skills, and to increase family understanding and management of challenging behavior (Tsatsanis, Foley, & Donehower, 2004). Comprehensive treatment in the areas of social, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional development may vastly improve the quality of life for the child with AS. Functional Assessment and Treatment Children on the autism spectrum exhibit a wide range of challenging behavior, including aggressive, self-injurious, and disruptive behavior. Some behavior may be severe and intrusive enough to warrant a behavior intervention plan informed by a functional behavioral assessment (FBA). An FBA is defined as “a process which searches for an explanation of the purpose behind a problem behavior” (OSEP Questions and Answers, 1999) and is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997 in cases in which a child’s behavior has resulted in negative educational outcomes. Specifically, FBAs are mandated when the behavior has resulted in the child’s suspension or placement in an alternative setting either for 10 consecutive days or because a due process hearing officer has determined the behavior is dangerous to the student or others, or when a student is placed in an alternative setting for 45 days when he or she has been involved in a weapons or drug offense. Although children with autism may infrequently meet these extreme requirements, IDEA also stipulates that if an individual’s behavior interferes with his or her learning or the learning of others, or poses a danger to the individual or others, then the student’s individual educational plan (IEP) team should implement a behavior intervention plan informed by a functional behavior assessment to address the behavior. These stipulations apply to many children with autism. Unfortunately, IDEA does not specify what elements constitute either an FBA or an effective intervention. We summarize here the components of a functional behavioral assessment and also discuss the importance of using the results of an FBA to inform and develop a function-based intervention for challenging behavior. Functional Assessment Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, and Kinkaid (2003) conducted a review of comprehensive treatments for children with autism and found that one of the TREATMENT OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS 307 components common to all effective treatments was a functional approach to challenging behavior. Although a child’s behavior may often appear unpredictable and random, most professionals in the field agree that all adaptive and maladaptive behavior is functionally and lawfully related to events in the environment and serves a purpose for the individual (Northup et al., 1991). An FBA is used to identify this function of a behavior so that an appropriate, function-based treatment can be implemented. In the context of functional assessment, behavior is maintained by either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement, that is, by environmental stimuli that are either added to (i.e., positive reinforcement) or removed from (i.e., negative reinforcement) the environment following the occurrence of a behavior that subsequently increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Examples of positive reinforcement may include the presentation of attention, desired items, or pleasurable sensory input, and examples of negative reinforcement include the removal of demands or other aversive environmental stimuli or physical sensations. A behavior may function to gain access to any of these forms of reinforcement and, additionally, the behavior may function to gain access to several forms of reinforcement simultaneously (Northup et al., 1991). The purpose of a functional assessment is to determine which of these myriad functions currently maintains a maladaptive behavior so that an effective intervention can be developed. Prior to either the functional assessment or development of a behavior intervention plan, one must develop an operational definition for the challenging behavior. An operational definition defines the behavior as a measurable observable event, thus reducing biased reporting of the behavior and increasing the reliability of measurement of the behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Accurate assessment and treatment of the behavior will rely heavily on accurate data collection and measurement of the behavior. Without data and measurement, one cannot determine conclusively that a behavior has been reduced.

Correspondence between traditional models of functional analysis and a functional analysis of manding behavior

Functional analysis procedures have been effectively used to determine the maintaining variables for challenging behavior and subsequently develop effective interventions. However, fear of evoking dangerous topographies of maladaptive behavior and concerns for reinforcing infrequent maladaptive behavior present challenges for people working in applied settings. The present investigation sought to evaluate the utility of an adjunctive functional analysis model that involved the reinforcement of mands rather than problem behavior and compared the results to traditional functional analyses. The results from the manding analysis yielded results similar to the traditional FA in 3 of 4 cases. These findings suggest that manding analyses may represent a useful assessment tool for difficult to assess problem behavior or for individuals in settings where consultative support is limited.