Kimihiro Inomata

EFFECTS OF ANGLE OF MODEL-DEMONSTRATION ON LEARNING OF MOTOR SKILL

The purpose was to examine the effects of three different demonstrations by a model on acquisition and retention of a sequential gross movement task. The second purpose was to examine the relationship between reversal processing of visual information about skills and coding of skill information. Thirty undergraduates (15 men and 15 women) were assigned into one of three conditions, Objective condition which demonstrated the task with the model facing the subject, Looking-glass condition in which the skill was demonstrated with the model facing the subject who viewed the performance opposite the right and left directions in executing the task, and the Subjective condition in which the subject observed the model from the rear. Number of immediate recall tests required to accomplish the sequential movements completely and the sum of the performance points for reproduced movements at each delayed recall test (1 day, 7 days, and 5 mo. after the immediate recall test) were employed. Analysis indicated the Subjective condition produced a significantly greater modeling effect in immediate recall of the movements than the Looking-glass condition. Retention of the acquired skills was almost equal under the three conditions.

Visual search strategies and decision making in baseball batting.

The goal was to examine the differences in visual search strategies between expert and nonexpert baseball batters during the preparatory phase of a pitchers pitching and accuracy and timing of swing judgments during the balls trajectory. 14 members of a college team (Expert group), and graduate and college students (Nonexpert group), were asked to observe 10 pitches thrown by a pitcher and respond by pushing a button attached to a bat when they thought the bat should be swung to meet the ball (swing judgment). Their eye movements, accuracy, and the timing of the swing judgment were measured. The Expert group shifted their point of observation from the proximal part of the body such as the head, chest, or trunk of the pitcher to the pitching arm and the release point before the pitcher released a ball, while the gaze point of the Nonexpert group visually focused on the head and the face. The accuracy in swing judgments of the Expert group was significantly higher, and the timing of their swing judgments was significantly earlier. Expert baseball batters used visual search strategies to gaze at specific cues (the pitching arm of the pitcher) and were more accurate and relatively quicker at decision making than Nonexpert batters.

Comparison of water- and land-based exercise in the reduction of state anxiety among older adults.

This study examined the effect of an acute exercise program of different exercise conditions on state anxiety among older adults. 73 healthy subjects were recruited and randomly assigned to either water exercise group (n = 36) or land exercise group (n = 37). State anxiety was assessed before exercise and following exercise. Subjects in the water exercise performed a 70-min. exercise program consisting of a 10-min. warm-up, a 20-min. brisk walking, a 20-min. rhythmic dancing, a 10-min. resistance training, and a 10-min. cool down exercise. The land exercise program contained a 10-min. warm-up and a 30-min. combined endurance and resistance exercise, followed by a 10-min. cool down exercise. Analysis showed that both exercise groups scored significantly (p<.001) lower on anxiety after exercise, but there was no significant interaction for group by trial for scores on state anxiety. The data indicate that elderly persons who participate in these types of exercise report lower state anxiety.

Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire in a Japanese Sport Setting

This study examined sport achievement orientation within the Japanese sport setting. 1,836 male and 425 Female athletes (M age = 18.6 yr.) from 47 sports completed the Japanese version of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (24 items), and 1,781 males and 421 females (M age=18.6 yr.) from 47 sports completed that of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (14 items). While the original English versions of the questionnaires are composed of three and two factors, respectively, present exploratory factor analyses identified four factors in the Sport Orientation Questionnaire and three in the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. In this study, two types of the SOQ Competitiveness and the TEOSQ Ego Orientation emerged even though the original versions included only one type. A one-way analysis of variance indicated that sex differences were significant for all subscales. Sex differences in the Sport Orientation Questionnaire of Japanese resembled those of Americans, The overall factor reliability and validity based on the sample suggested that the modified Japanese versions of the two questionnaires can be valuable in the investigation of sport achievement orientation in Japanese sport and exercise settings.

SOCCER PLAYERS' AND CLOSED-SKILL ATHLETES' EXECUTION OF A COMPLEX MOTOR SKILL

The main purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in speed and accuracy of motor execution among female soccer players in an Expert Soccer group, a Novice Soccer group, and a Closed-skill Athlete group. There were two main findings. Firstly, both soccer groups performed better than the Closed-skill Athletes on speed and accuracy of motor execution. Secondly, there were no significant differences between Expert and Novice soccer players in the speed and accuracy of motor execution.

Effects of increasing expenditure of energy during exercise on psychological well-being in older adults.

The purpose of present study was to examine the effects on psychological well-being of energy expended as a result of the exercise intervention. 33 older adults (M age = 68.6 yr., SD = 4.7) participated in three supervised water-based exercise sessions per week for 12 wk. Based on the relative changes in daily energy expenditure as measured by questionnaire between pre- and posttraining, the subjects were split into three groups. This classified each subject as either having experienced a relatively low change (n=11), moderate change (n=11), or high change (n = 11) in daily energy expenditure. Our data showed that the group with the greater increase in energy expenditure as a result of exercise, when compared pre- and posttraining, improved only on Depression–Dejection on the Profile of Mood States more than did the group with low change. Consequently, we concluded that the amount of energy expended was partially related to improvement in psychological well-being.

Perceived distance during golf putting

This study examined the effect of anxiety states on the relationship between golf-putting distance and performance in an environment requiring high movement accuracy. Twenty-three amateur golfers attempted 15 putts at each of three putting distances, 1.25, 1.50, and 1.75m, under conditions characterized by both control demands and pressure. All attempts were recorded, and kinematic features were analyzed. Under conditions involving an audience and a monetary reward, the mean score on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Y-1 and the mean heart rate increased by 14 points and 11bpm, respectively. We grouped participants on an a posteriori basis using the median split. The backswing of high-anxiety performers shortened, the downswing speed declined, and the relative time to peak club-head velocity changed when putting under pressure from 1.25m. In contrast, no change in backswing or relative time to peak velocity was observed in low-anxiety performers, although impact velocity increased under this condition. These results indicate that the degree to which both low- and high-anxiety golfers were anxious about failure affected motor control at the 1.25-m distance, suggesting that a distortion in perceived distance may result from the interaction between putting distance and anxiety related to failure during golf putting.

Visual information processing under time pressure in high and low level soccer players.

The present study investigated differences in information processing rate of high and low level soccer players under three time-pressure conditions: High (0.5 sec.), Medium (1 sec.), and Low (2 sec.). No significant difference was found under Low time pressure, but under Medium time pressure the higher skilled group processed more visual information than the lower skilled group (p < .05).

Changes in heart rate of pitchers during semi-hard baseball practices and matches.

High heart rate during competition is a response to both psychological and physiological stress, making it difficult to examine psychological stress in sport. The validity of a new method to extract psychological stress by subtracting heart rate during practice from that of competition was evaluated. The method was used in actual competition for eight pitchers. Most participants showed a “coasting phase,” “increment phase,” and “descent phase” for heart rate time-series data under both conditions. Heart rate in competitions was higher than during practice, and heart rate in both conditions showed a high correlation. Heart rate changes were significantly higher in situations in which two or three balls had already been thrown compared to zero balls thrown. Thus, psychological stress can be examined in various competition conditions using this method.

Development of the sport achievement orientation questionnaire for Japanese athletes by exploratory factor analysis.

In this study, a questionnaire to assess achievement orientation in sport for Japanese athletes was developed. We created the questionnaire by picking items from free descriptions of Japanese athletes and using factor analysis of the responses in a Japanese sport setting. The subjects were 2,415 athletes (M = 16.7 yr., SD = 2.7) in Japan. Factor analyses in this study identified three factors. Top Level Orientation, Demonstrating Ability Orientation, and Win Orientation, respectively. An examination of the intercorrelations among the three scores showed the subscales were related. There were no correlations between the new measure and the Japanese versions of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire except that the correlation of Win Orientation and the SOQ Athletic Success Orientation was low and negative. These results suggested that the three subscales appeared to be separate but related factors, and that it is an original measurement for only Japanese athletes. The overall factor reliability and validity based on the sample suggested that the Sport Achievement Orientation Questionnaire for Japanese Athletes can be valuable means for the investigation of achievement orientation in Japanese sport and exercise settings.