Kirk R. Blankstein

Self-Critical Perfectionism and Daily Affect: Dispositional and Situational Influences on Stress and Coping

This study of university students (64 men and 99 women) examined both dispositional and situational influences of self-critical (SC) perfectionism on stress and coping, which explain its association with high negative affect and low positive affect. Participants completed questionnaires at the end of the day for 7 consecutive days. Structural equation modeling indicated that the relation between SC perfectionism and daily affect could be explained by several maladaptive tendencies associated with SC perfectionism (e.g., hassles, avoidant coping, low perceived social support). Multilevel modeling indicated that SC perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that imply possible failure, loss of control, and criticism from others. As well, certain coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused coping) were ineffective for high-SC perfectionists relative to low-SC perfectionists.

Psychological distress and the frequency of perfectionistic thinking.

Five studies tested the hypotheses that there are individual differences in the frequency of automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and that these thoughts are associated with psychological distress. Research with the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) established that this new measure has adequate psychometric properties, and high PCI scorers tend to spontaneously report perfectionistic thoughts in naturalistic situations. Additional research confirmed that frequent perfectionism thoughts account for unique variance in distress, over and above variance predicted by standard measures of negative automatic thoughts and trait perfectionism measures. Overall, the findings support the view that personality traits involved in depression and anxiety have a cognitive component involving ruminative thoughts and that activation of this cognitive personality component contributes to distress.

Perfectionism and learned resourcefulness in depression and self esteem

Abstract Recent research has shown that individual differences exist in self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially-prescribed perfectionism. The present study examined the extent to which various dimensions of perfectionism are related to levels of personal adjustment and whether individual differences in learned resourcefulness mediate the relation between perfectionism and adjustment. A sample of 103 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Rosenbaums Self-Control Schedule, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Consistent with past research, it was found that the belief that others have perfectionistic standards for oneself (i.e. socially-prescribed perfectionism) was the perfectionism dimension most closely related to depression and low self-esteem. Moreover, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the interaction of greater socially-prescribed perfectionism and lower perceived self-control accounted for unique variance in depression scores. It was also found that self-oriented perfectionism was associated positively with self-control. The role of learned resourcefulness as a mediator of the link between perfectionism and adjustment is discussed.

Perfectionism, intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation, and motivated strategies for learning : A multidimensional analysis of university students

Abstract We investigated the interrelations between dimensions of perfectionism and measures of academic motivation and learning strategies in university students. When partial correlation analysis was employed to examine the unique relation between specific perfectionism subscales and motivation/learning scales, self-oriented perfectionism was significantly related to students’ motivation and learning strategies in positive, adaptive ways whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was related in negative, maladaptive ways. Self-oriented perfectionists were motivated primarily by extrinsic compensation for their academic work whereas socially prescribed perfectionists were more motivated by recognition from others. Self-oriented perfectionism was significantly positively associated with self-efficacy for learning and performance, adaptive metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies, and effective resource management. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated negatively with these measures. In addition, self-oriented perfectionism was associated positively with intrinsic goal orientation for a specific course, task value, and critical thinking whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with test anxiety and a decreased likelihood of help-seeking. The theoretical importance of these findings and the implications for devising strategic counseling interventions are discussed.

PERFECTIONISM, LIFE EVENTS, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS : A TEST OF A DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression.

Affect intensity, coping styles, mood regulation expectancies, and depressive symptoms

Abstract The present study examined the link between affect intensity and indices of coping styles and negative mood regulation expectancies. A measure of depressive symptoms was also included to investigate affect intensity and depressive symptoms, and to assess the link between affect intensity and coping after removing variance due to depressive symptoms. A sample of 153 women completed the Affect Intensity Measure, the Coping Inventory of Stressful Situations (CISS), the Negative Mood Regulation (NMR) Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory. The CISS provides measures of task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and two forms of avoidant coping (distraction, and social diversion), while the NMR assesses expectancies about the ability to remove negative moods. Correlational analyses revealed that individuals with high levels of affect intensity reported significantly higher levels of emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping, and more negative mood regulation expectancies. Depressive symptoms were associated positively with affect intensity, emotion-oriented coping, negative mood regulation expectancies, and the distraction component of avoidance-oriented coping. Partial correlation analyses showed that the link between affect intensity and maladaptive coping styles remained significant after removing variance due to depression symptoms, while the link between affect intensity and depression symptoms was no longer significant after removing variance due to emotion-oriented coping. Overall, the findings provide support for the view that high affect intensity is associated with a negative coping orientation when emotional distress is experienced. The results are discussed in the context of a mediational model of affect intensity, emotion-oriented coping, and symptoms of depression.

Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking.

Several authors have suggested that perfectionism is associated with irrational thinking. The purpose of the present research was to test the hypothesis that various dimensions of perfectionism are related significantly to core irrational beliefs. In Study 1, 102 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT). The MPS provides assessments of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Analyses revealed that self-oriented perfectionism was correlated positively with the IBT high self-expectations and perfect solutions subscales. Socially prescribed perfectionism was correlated significantly with a variety of irrational beliefs including high self-expectations, demand for social approval, dependency, blame proneness, and anxious overconcern. Other-oriented perfectionism was correlated with few irrational beliefs. In Study 2, 130 subjects completed the MPS and the Survey of Personal Beliefs, a new measure of core irrational beliefs. Analyses confirmed that all three perfectionism dimensions were associated with core irrational beliefs. It is concluded that the results constitute general support for the hypothesis that cognitive aspects are important in both personal and social components of perfectionism and that perfectionists are characterized by increased levels of irrational beliefs that may contribute to maladjustment. The findings are discussed in terms of the associations among perfectionism, irrational beliefs, and maladjustment.

Dimensions of perfectionism and type a behaviour

Abstract The present paper reports the results of research that examines the link between dimensions of Type A behaviour and perfectionism in two separate samples. In sample one, 233 subjects (105 males, 128 females) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey. The MPS has three subscales measuring self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was found that various components of Type A behaviour were associated positively with all three perfectionism dimensions among males. As for females, significant positive associations were present between various Type A measures and the perfectionism measures, with the exception of other-oriented perfectionism. In sample two, a broader assessment was obtained by having 100 subjects (57 males, 43 females) complete the MPS and three measures of Type A behaviour. Once again, it was found that at least one component of the Type A construct was associated with each perfectionism dimension, and these relations were present for both males and females. The findings of the present research are discussed in terms of how the perfectionistic standards of the Type A individual are expressed in interpersonal contexts. The results are also discussed in terms of the need for self-evaluation models to incorporate social standards.

Specific cognitive-personality vulnerability styles in depression and the five-factor model of personality

This study located the specific cognitive-personality vulnerability measures proposed by S. J. Blatt (1974; Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107–157), i.e. dependency and self-criticism, and by A. T. Beck (1983; Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton and J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches, pp. 265–290. New York: Raven), i.e. sociotropy and autonomy, within a comprehensive measure of personality, the NEO-PI-R developed by P. T. Costa Jr. & R. R. McCrae (1992, The NEO Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources). University students (102 men, 131 women) completed the NEO-PI-R, the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, the Revised Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale, and CES-D depression. Results indicated that: (1) the 30 NEO-PI-R facets illuminate the similarities and differences between dependency, sociotropy, self-criticism, and autonomy; (2) the different forms of interpersonal content reflected by the specific vulnerability constructs descriptively distinguish them from the neuroticism domain and its facets; and (3) the main effects of dependency, sociotropy, self-criticism, and autonomy in predicting depression are explained by shared variance with neuroticism.

Perfectionism, social problem-solving ability, and psychological distress.

The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.