Paul L. Hewitt

Perfectionism in the Self and Social Contexts: Conceptualization, Assessment, and Association With Psychopathology

This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.

Dimensions of Perfectionism in Unipolar Depression

We tested the hypothesis that self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism are related differentially to unipolar depression. The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale was administered along with measures of depression and anxiety to 22 depressed patients, 22 matched normal control subjects, and 13 anxiety patients. It was found that the depressed patients had higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism than did either the psychiatric or normal control subjects. In addition, depressed patients and anxious patients reported higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism than did the normal control subjects. The results suggest that various dimensions of perfectionism may play an important role in clinical depression.

Dimensions of perfectionism, daily stress, and depression: A test of the specific vulnerability hypothesis.

We tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stressors to predict depression. A depressed patient sample (N = 51) and a general psychiatric sample (N = 94) completed measures of perfectionism, hassles, and depression. Subjects in Sample 2 also completed other personality measures to assess the amount of unique variance in depression. Partial support was obtained in that in both samples self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stressors to predict depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism interacted with interpersonal stress in Sample 1 and with achievement stress in Sample 2 to predict depression. Several personality variables, including socially prescribed perfectionism, accounted for unique variance in depression. The results suggest that perfectionism dimensions are associated with depression and may constitute specific vulnerability factors.

Perfectionism traits and perfectionistic self‐presentation in eating disorder attitudes, characteristics, and symptoms

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to assess the association between several dimensions of perfectionism and measures of eating disorder symptoms, body image, and appearance self-esteem in college students. METHOD A sample of 81 female university students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, the Eating Attitudes Test, the Bulimia Test, the Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire, and two measures of self-esteem. RESULTS It was found that whereas self-oriented perfectionism was related only to anorexic symptoms, the social facets of perfectionism, especially socially prescribed perfectionism and the perfectionistic self-presentation dimensions, were related to eating disorder symptoms as well as body image avoidance and self-esteem. DISCUSSION The findings support the usefulness of differentiating personal and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism as well as trait versus self-presentational aspects of perfectionism in investigating personality and attitudes and behaviors related to eating disorders.

Psychological distress and the frequency of perfectionistic thinking.

Five studies tested the hypotheses that there are individual differences in the frequency of automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and that these thoughts are associated with psychological distress. Research with the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) established that this new measure has adequate psychometric properties, and high PCI scorers tend to spontaneously report perfectionistic thoughts in naturalistic situations. Additional research confirmed that frequent perfectionism thoughts account for unique variance in distress, over and above variance predicted by standard measures of negative automatic thoughts and trait perfectionism measures. Overall, the findings support the view that personality traits involved in depression and anxiety have a cognitive component involving ruminative thoughts and that activation of this cognitive personality component contributes to distress.

The Perceived Stress Scale: Factor structure and relation to depression symptoms in a psychiatric sample

The present study sought to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) when administered to psychiatric patients. We also examined predictive validity of the PSS by assessing the association between the Perceived Stress Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. A heterogeneous sample of 96 psychiatric patients (48 men, 48 women) completed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the Beck Depression Inventory. Factor analysis of the PSS established that the scale consisted of two factors. The first factor was comprised primarily of items reflecting adaptational symptoms. In contrast, the second factor consisted of items reflecting coping ability. Both factors had an adequate degree of internal consistency. Finally, a series of regression analyses predicting depression found that both factors accounted for unique variance in depression scores in women, but only the first factor accounted for unique variance in men. It is concluded that the PSS is a multidimensional and internally consistent measure of perceived stress.

The interpersonal expression of perfection: Perfectionistic self-presentation and psychological distress.

A concept involving the interpersonal expression of perfection, perfectionistic self-presentation, is introduced. It is argued that perfectionistic self-presentation is a maladaptive self-presentational style composed of three facets: perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., proclaiming and displaying ones perfection), nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concealing and avoiding behavioral demonstrations of ones imperfection), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., evading and avoiding verbal admissions of ones imperfection). Several studies involving diverse samples demonstrate that perfectionistic self-presentation is a valid and reliable construct and a consistent factor in personal and interpersonal psychological distress. It is argued that the need to promote ones perfection or the desire to conceal ones imperfection involves self-esteem regulation in the interpersonal context.

Perfectionism and learned resourcefulness in depression and self esteem

Abstract Recent research has shown that individual differences exist in self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially-prescribed perfectionism. The present study examined the extent to which various dimensions of perfectionism are related to levels of personal adjustment and whether individual differences in learned resourcefulness mediate the relation between perfectionism and adjustment. A sample of 103 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Rosenbaums Self-Control Schedule, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Consistent with past research, it was found that the belief that others have perfectionistic standards for oneself (i.e. socially-prescribed perfectionism) was the perfectionism dimension most closely related to depression and low self-esteem. Moreover, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the interaction of greater socially-prescribed perfectionism and lower perceived self-control accounted for unique variance in depression scores. It was also found that self-oriented perfectionism was associated positively with self-control. The role of learned resourcefulness as a mediator of the link between perfectionism and adjustment is discussed.

Inhibited expression of negative emotions and interpersonal orientation in anorexia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE This study examined inhibited expression of negative feelings and interpersonal orientation in women with anorexia nervosa. METHOD Twenty-one women meeting DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa were compared with 21 psychiatric and 21 normal control women matched on education. Two measures were used to assess inhibited expression of negative feelings and interpersonal orientation: the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory assesses the suppression and expression of anger and the Silencing the Self Scale assesses four cognitive schemas involving the repression of needs and feelings to protect interpersonal relationships. RESULTS Women with anorexia nervosa reported significantly higher scores on the four Silencing the Self schemas and on suppressed anger after controlling for age. These group differences were maintained for two of the cognitive schemas (Care and Silence) after controlling for depression, self-esteem, and global assessment of functioning. Inhibited expression of negative emotion and interpersonal orientation scores were also significantly related to cognitive and affective components of body image dissatisfaction and to trait and self-presentational dimensions of perfectionism. DISCUSSION These findings are reviewed in the context of health psychology, as well as feminist and temperament theories. Implications for treatment are addressed.

Perfectionism in children: associations with depression, anxiety, and anger

Abstract The relationships among measures of dimensions of perfectionism, depression, anxiety, stress, and anger were investigated in 114 children (45 males and 69 females, aged 10–15 years). Based on previous research [e.g. Hewitt, P. L. & Flett, G. L. (1993). Dimensions of perfectionism, daily stress, and depression: a test of the specific vulnerability hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 102 , 58–65], self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism were hypothesized to interact with either achievement stress or social stress to predict concurrent depression. Participants completed the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, Childrens Depression Inventory, Childrens Manifest Anxiety Scale-Revised, Childrens Hassles Scale, and Pediatric Anger Expression Scale. Results revealed that self-oriented perfectionism was significantly associated with depression and anxiety, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was significantly correlated with depression, anxiety, social stress, anger-suppression, and outwardly directed anger. Findings also indicated that: (1) self-oriented perfectionism interacted with social stress to predict anxiety; and that (2) self-oriented perfectionism interacted with achievement stress and with social stress to predict depression. Results suggest that dimensions of perfectionism may be relevant variables in, and differential predictors of, maladjustment and distress in children.