Kirstie M. Farrar

Sexual Socialization Messages on Entertainment Television: Comparing Content Trends 1997–2002

Previous content analyses of sex on television have relied on differing measures and sampling strategies, which makes it difficult to compare patterns of sexual portrayals over time. This large-scale study (N = 2,817 programs) examines the sexual messages presented on television across both broadcast and cable channels over a 5-year period, applying identical measures to three biennial samples of program content. Results demonstrate that sexual talk and behavior are highly frequent aspects of the television environment. Talk about sex is shown more often than sexual behavior, though both types of content increased significantly from 1997/1998 to 2001/2002. Over that time span, the percentage of shows portraying sexual intercourse doubled from 7 to 14%. Results also show that topics related to sexual risks or responsibilities (e.g., condom use, abstinence) are increasingly included on television, but nonetheless remain infrequent overall. Such safe sex messages occur most frequently in program environments where they are most relevant (i.e., when sexual intercourse is included in the story). The content analysis findings are discussed in terms of their implications for audience effects.

The causes and consequences of presence: Considering the influence of violent video games on presence and aggression

The level of presence is likely to influence the effect of media violence. This project examines the causes and consequences of presence in the context of violent video game play. In a between subjects design, 227 participants were randomly assigned to play either a violent or a nonviolent video game. The results are consistent with what would be predicted by social learning theory and are consistent with previous presence research. Causal modeling analyses reveal two separate paths to presence: from individual differences and condition. The first path reveals that individual differences (previous game use and gender) predict presence. Those who frequently play video games reported higher levels of presence than those who play video games less frequently. Males play more games but felt less presence than women. The second path is related to perceived violence: those who perceived the game to be more violent felt more presence than those who perceived less violence in the game. Both of these paths were influenced by frustration with the game, which reduced presence. Those who felt more presence felt more hostility and were more verbally aggressive than those who felt lower levels of presence. Higher levels of presence led to increased physically aggressive intentions. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The effects of video game realism on attention, retention and aggressive outcomes

This study used a between subjects, post-test only design to test the effects of video game realism (Doom 1 vs. Doom 3) and a control condition on attention, retention and aggressive outcomes. Overall, those who played Doom 3 perceived it as significantly more realistic than those who played Doom 1, thus providing validity for the manipulation. Next, those who played Doom 3 were significantly more attentive and experienced more presence than those who played Doom 1. Furthermore, playing either Doom game resulted in more aggression than playing no game and physically aggressive intentions were higher among those who played Doom 3 as compared to those who played Doom 1. Lastly, we tested for any possible interaction between realism and the attention and retention subfunctions on production and we found that, compared to the other players, those who experienced greater identification among those playing Doom 3 had higher verbal aggression. For physical aggression, those who played Doom 3 and experienced more attention and greater identification had higher aggression scores than those in the other conditions.

Retaliatory Aggression and the Effects of Point of View and Blood in Violent Video Games

In this study, an experimental design was utilized to test, first, the effect of a violent game versus a no game control on physical and verbal aggression and retaliatory aggression against a confederate. In addition, the effects of two internal video game manipulations were explored. Overall, those in the violent game condition were more verbally and physically aggressive than those in the no game condition. In terms of internal game features, third-person play with the blood on, especially when combined with aggressive cognitions and to some extent, hostile affect, encouraged more aggressive outcomes.

Measuring State and Trait Aggression: A Short, Cautionary Tale

Ample evidence exists suggesting that exposure to television and film violence (Paik & Comstock, 1994) and playing with violent video games (Sherry, 2001) contribute to increases in aggressive behavior; however, the magnitude of the effect ranges from small to moderate. In this study, we argue that in some cases, use of trait, rather than state, aggression can serve to attenuate effects. We report the results of a study in which a trait aggression scale is reworded slightly to create a state measure. The state and trait scales are then compared in high- and low-aggression priming conditions. Results suggest that though both scales are reliable and both have construct validity, the reworded state aggression scale responds more to the high prime than to the low prime. More important, it also responds more than the original trait scale does. Therefore, minor variations in studies of medias effect on aggression, such as variations in scale wording, can serve to attenuate effects.

Video games, immersion, and cognitive aggression: does the controller matter?

The influence of video game realism and controller naturalness on aggression was examined with an experiment that manipulated game realism and controller naturalness. Perceived controller naturalness increased perceptions of realism of the game and led to greater immersion. The more realistic game was perceived as such and led to greater immersion. Ultimately, greater immersion led to more cognitive aggression. Results are discussed in terms of a mental models approach and the process of model matching.

Are you willing to risk it? The relationship between risk, regret, and vaccination intent

Medically unsupported concerns pertaining to the safety and necessity of childhood vaccines may have contributed to a proportion of American parents opting against measles, mumps, and rubella vaccinations. Given this, the present investigation sought to explore the influence of perceived severity, perceived likelihood, and anticipated regret on surrogate vaccination decision-making among parents of young children. An online survey was distributed to 110 parents with unvaccinated children between 0 and 23 months of age. Significant correlations were found among focal study constructs. Anticipated regret was found to fully mediate the link between risk perceptions and vaccination intentions. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings were discussed.

Modeling outcomes of violent video game play

While much research on video games has focused on aggressive outcomes, the extant research has not come to consensus on the role of other factors, notably enjoyment, frustration and individual differences amongst players, in mediating the link between violent game play and aggression. This experimental design uses a mental models approach to examine game features (e.g., controller naturalness), player characteristics (e.g., first person shooter experience, sex, degree of competitiveness) and the game play experience (e.g., perceived game realism, immersion, game failure, frustration and enjoyment) to explain aggressive outcomes. Results from a revised path model suggest perceived realism, immersion, and experience with other first person shooters all positively predicted enjoyment while frustration negatively predicted game enjoyment. Frustration and enjoyment both predicted state aggression. The findings of this study support the application of mental models as a theoretical approach to unify thinking about violent games, contextual features of violent games, individual difference variables and differences in player perceptions and game experiences with regards to outcome aggression. Results are discussed in terms of the model matching hypothesis and implications for the comprehensive study of violent game play, including the importance of enjoyment and frustration, are also discussed. Study takes a comprehensive look at effects of violent video game play.Experimental design manipulated controllers for a first person shooter.Path model tested to examine predictors of enjoyment, frustration, aggression.Results indicated support for model matching hypothesis.Experience, competitiveness, and failure were significant predictors in model.

Appetitive and Defensive Arousal in Violent Video Games: Explaining Individual Differences in Attraction to and Effects of Video Games

Evidence surrounding the attraction to media violence is mixed and the effects of violent video game play on players varies across experimental participants. Differences in both may be explained by differences in experienced positive or negative arousal. This study utilizes the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP) and the motivation activation measure (MAM), which measures resting activation of the appetitive and aversive arousal systems, to explore the relationship between attraction to media violence, arousal, and aggression. In part 1, a questionnaire found that men and frequent players of violent games expected to enjoy violent games more than nonviolent games. In addition, participants whose scores on the MAM characterized them as risk takers (high scores on appetitive arousal and low scores on aversive arousal) indicated a stronger preference for violent games compared to the other three arousal types, which is in line with the LC4MP. In the experimental portion of the research, after playing a violent game, those participants characterized as risk avoidant (high on aversive arousal and low on appetitive arousal) were significantly less aggressive than all other arousal groups. Overall, results show that individual differences in the appetitive and aversive arousal systems can explain attraction to violent media. Furthermore, arousal resulting from violent video game play can be experienced as pleasant or aversive, and it is this experience of arousal that explains variations in aggressive responses to violent video games.

The Perception of Human Appearance in Video Games: Toward an Understanding of the Effects of Player Perceptions of Game Features

In this posttest-only experimental design, participants played one of two versions of the video game Quake with either a human-looking target or a nonhuman-looking target. Dependent measures included perceived human appearance of the target, perceived violence in the game, immersive presence, physically and verbally aggressive intentions, and aggressive cognitions. Of specific interest was the relative effect of the manipulation compared to the effect of the players’ perceptions (humanness of the target, experienced immersive presence) on aggressive outcomes. We utilize schema theory to argue that game perceptions, including those of the manipulation, and other perceptual variables partially mediate the relationship between game features and aggressive outcomes. First, we found that the manipulation was successful and less human-looking targets were perceived as less human. In addition, the more experience someone had playing violent games, the less violent they perceived the stimulus game to be. Second, men were more physically aggressive than women. Third, the manipulation of humanness had no direct effects on aggression. Last, the more human players perceived the aggressive targets to be, the more verbally aggressive they were and the more violent words they generated. Thus, perceptions of the manipulation were more important than the experimental manipulation itself in predicting outcomes.