Krautwald-Junghanns Me

Research on the Anatomy and Pathology of the Psittacine Heart

Abstract Understanding the normal anatomy of psittacine birds is basic to the diagnosis and treatment of disease in these species. As a first step toward a systematic investigation of the avian cardiovascular system, we conducted a 2-part study of healthy and diseased parrots. In the first part, the normal heart shape, size, and weight were studied in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) and Australian king parrots (Alisterus s scapularis) that were euthanatized because of genetic feather abnormalities. To compare results of birds of different sizes, measurements were evaluated in relation to the length of the sternum of the individual bird. Only minor differences were found between the 2 species studied. In the second part of the study, the spectrum and the frequency of pathologic changes of the heart and the major vessels were evaluated in 107 caged psittacine birds that were presented for routine necropsy. Of the birds examined, 36% had visible gross lesions of the heart, the major vessels, or both. On histologic examination, 99% exhibited at least low-grade pathologic changes of the heart or major vessels, which frequently were associated with noninfectious diseases. The results of this study emphasize the importance of cardiovascular disease in captive parrots.

Echocardiographic examinations of 60 African grey parrots and 30 other psittacine birds

The aim of this study was to establish reference values for the assessment of cardiac function in birds by measuring structures in the heart of healthy psittacine birds; 60 grey parrots, 10 Amazon parrots, 10 cockatoos and 10 Senegal parrots were anaesthetised with isoflurane and examined echocardiographically. The heart was visualised in two planes (vertical and horizontal views). Depending on the quality of the images, several dimensions of the heart could be measured and various parameters calculated. On the basis of these values, it was possible to establish reference values for each parrot genus. Some relative parameters showed no significant difference between the genera, independent of the birds size.

Plasma concentrations of voriconazole in falcons

Doses of 12·5 mg voriconazole/kg bodyweight administered every 12 hours by crop gavage to six falcons for 14 days provided peak plasma concentrations of more than 1 μg/ml, but the trough concentrations were lower and sometimes undetectable. Administering the same doses incorporated into meat that was fed to one falcon for seven days and to three falcons for up to 91 days provided similar plasma concentrations.

Prevalence of viral infections in captive collections of boid snakes in Germany

Data on viral infections in apparently healthy snake collections in Germany were obtained with respect to husbandry conditions and health status. Samples from 100 boid snakes (from 14 collections) were examined microbiologically and for the presence of paramyxoviruses (PMVs) using RT-PCR. Blood was tested for the presence of antibodies against PMV, adenovirus and reovirus and for inclusion bodies indicative of inclusion body disease. Nine snakes tested positive for PMV, and inclusion bodies were detected in six snakes. Antibodies against PMV were found in one snake, and two snakes had antibodies against an adenovirus. A significant correlation was found between the origin of the snake and the presence of PMV, and between the presence of remarkable microbiological findings and husbandry conditions.

Diagnosis and long-term therapy of right-sided heart failure in a yellow- crowned amazon (Amazona ochrocephala)

CARDIAC disease in psittacine birds occurs more often than previously assumed. Although reference values for the echocardiographic assessment of the avian heart exist, experiences with long-term therapy of diseased birds are still lacking. A 22-year-old, female yellow-crowned amazon (Amazona ochrocephala) was presented because of a history of weakness, incoordination and dyspnoea. The bird had previously been found to be positive for circovirus (psittacine beak and feather disease) by PCR testing of a feather. Clinical examination revealed the bird to be in a poor general condition with a reduced nutritional status (bodyweight 430 g, reference value 500 g [Flemmer and Clubb 1994]). The abdominal region appeared slightly swollen. Respiration was forced and accompanied by slight squealing sounds, which were stronger when the bird was handled during examination; this was considered to be stress-induced. On radiography (ventrodorsal and laterolateral views), the shadow of the heart and the liver were noticeably enlarged, and the airsacs were displaced. The bird collapsed during the examination, and was placed in a quiet, darkened area and oxygen was administered; etilefrine (Effortil; Boehringer Ingelheim) was administered orally dropwise to effect, and 10 ml lactated Ringer’s solution with 5 per cent dextrose was given subcutaneously. After the bird had been stabilised, echocardiography was performed with the bird held in an upright position, using a 7·5 MHz microcurved convex scanner (Sonoace 8800; Kretztechnik). The scanner was placed on the medial abdominal area directly behind the sternum, using the ventromedian approach (Krautwald-Junghanns and others 1995, Pees and others 2004). Measurements of the left ventricle revealed a reduced length (systolic 14·7 mm, reference values mean [sd] 21·1 [2·3] mm) and width (systolic 4·5 mm, reference values 6·7 [1·2] mm); fractional shortening was slightly greater than reference values (29·7 mm, reference values 20·7 [6·8] mm). The right ventricle was enlarged (systolic length 13·5 mm, reference values 9·4 [1·8] mm; systolic width 5·2 mm, reference values 3·1 [0·7] mm). The outer wall of the right ventricle was thickened (no reference values exist for the outer walls of the heart, since differentiation from surrounding tissue is difficult in healthy birds [Pees and others 2004]), and the interventricular septum was also thickened (4·3 mm, reference values 2·4 [0·2] mm) (Fig 1); furthermore, the contractility of the right ventricle was reduced (26·8 per cent, reference values 34·1 [3·7] per cent) (Table 1). An anechoic area could be seen between the heart and liver tissue, and the liver vessels were subjectively considered to be dilated. On the basis of these findings, a diagnosis of right-sided heart failure (hypertrophy and dilation), left-sided hypertrophy, hydropericardium and congestion of the liver was made. Swabs were taken from the choana, crop and cloaca for microbiological examination; a heavy growth of Enterobacter cloacae was obtained on culture from both the choana and the crop. The bird was hospitalised in the clinic and initial cardiac therapy was started using 2·5 ml/kg enalapril (Enacard; Merial) orally, every 12 hours, as described by Straub and others 2003). The bird also received 20 mg/kg of a mixture of Ringer’s solution (50 per cent), 5 per cent glucose (25 per cent) and amino acids (25 per cent) (Amynin; Merial) subcutaneously, every 12 hours. Since the isolation of E cloacae in pure culture was assessed to be an accompanying problem, the bird was treated with 12 mg/kg enrofloxacin (Baytril 2·5 per cent; Bayer) intramuscularly, every 24 hours, following antibiotic sensitivity testing of the isolate. Since amazons kept in captivity often suffer from respiratory mycosis, a preventive antifungal therapy was started using 10 mg/kg itraconazole (Sempera Liquid; Janssen-Cilag) orally, every 24 hours, and 8000 iu/kg vitamin A (Stress-Vitam-N; Selectavet) was administered intramuscularly every five days, to support epithelial regeneration of the air sac walls. Additionally, a vitamin B complex (Vitamin B-komplex; cp-pharma) with a dosage of vitamin B1 of 5 mg/kg, was administered intramuscularly every 24 hours because of the central nervous signs of incoordination. Echocardiographic examination was repeated every two days during the period of hospitalisation. On day 8 after the start of therapy, the pericardial effusion was no longer visible, and congestion of the liver vessels was subjectively assessed to be reduced. Although the bird’s body mass had only increased slightly, to 452 g, its general condition had improved significantly. Enalapril therapy was then continued by the owner, at a dosage of 2·5 mg/kg administered every 12 hours, with the bird as an outpatient. It was possible to administer the drug directly via a syringe, and the bird accepted the treatment well. Treatment was monitored by examining the bird in the clinic approximately every three weeks. On day 98 after starting the cardiac therapy, the bird was slightly depressed and showed difficulties in sitting on its perch. The owners reported no changes in the application or the bird’s acceptance of the treatment, or in its environment. Echocardiography revealed no deterioration of cardiac function, but haematological examination revealed an increased haematocrit of 68 per cent (reference range 41 to 53 per cent) Short Communications

Effect of handling-induced stress on the results of spectral Doppler echocardiography in falcons

In order to evaluate the effects of habituation to handling on the Doppler-derived velocity of diastolic ventricular inflow and systolic aortic outflow, falcons that were accustomed to regular handling were compared with falcons that had been handled very little. The mean heart rate of the frequently handled birds was 111 beats per minute less than the non-habituated birds. All the mean blood flow velocities recorded were much higher in the non-habituated birds than those accustomed to handling. Taking into account the difficulty of objectively quantifying the level of stress suffered by any individual bird, the question is, if meaningful clinical or reference values for Doppler-derived blood flow velocities may be obtained in unsedated or non-anaesthetized birds?

Pericardiocentesis and the use of enalapril in a Fischer's lovebird (Agapornis fischeri)

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The effects of isoflurane anaesthesia on some Doppler-derived cardiac parameters in the common buzzard (Buteo buteo).

In order to gain an initial overview of the influence of anaesthesia on the results of Doppler-derived blood flow measurements in raptors, the heart rate as well as three different sample volumes of pulsed-wave spectral Doppler-derived flow velocity (diastolic flow across the left and right atrioventricular valve, systolic flow across the aortic valve) were determined in 10 common buzzards (Buteo buteo). Measurements were taken once in conscious and once in anaesthetized birds. Anaesthesia was shown to produce significant changes in cardiac parameters recorded in the same birds whilst conscious. When comparing conscious birds with each other (with one exception for right sided ventricular inflow velocity) no correlation between the heart frequency and measured blood flow velocities was evident. This was also the case under anaesthesia. However, significant differences in these parameters were evident when comparing the results obtained before and under anaesthesia. The results suggest that the influence of anaesthesia in raptors is more than a simple reduction of heart rate and that there is also reduction in blood flow velocity.

Diagnosis of pericardial effusion in birds by ultrasound

Advice on control of CIBD is speculative but includes reduction of all parasite challenge. A clean grazing policy would also avoid the related but separate condition of chronic gut damage and hypersensitivity (anthelmintic unresponsive diarrhoea) caused by repeated larval nematode challenge, even in the face of repeated anthelmintic treatments, as described by Suttle (1995). Other factors involved in the aetiology of CIBD could include viruses, for example, ovine herpes virus 2, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, bovine leukaemia virus, specific dietary allergens and a genetic predisposition. Neither Border disease virus nor maedi-visna was present in the study flock as determined by repeated serological testing. Conversely, lymphoma was diagnosed sporadically in the study flock and has been seen concurrently with chronic lymphocytic enteritis in a Canadian flock (Rae 1994); thus, a connection may exist between these conditions. CIBD should be considered as a differential diagnosis in sheep aged three years or younger, showing poor growth or illthrift with ruminal hypomotility, dullness, pasty faeces with negative results for parasitic infestations, trace element deficiencies and paratuberculosis. More conventional intensively managed flocks may be at risk from the condition since similar pathology has been seen in illthriven six-month-old Suffolk lambs after an extended housing period (D. J. Wilson, P. R. Scott, unpublished data).

Vitamin A requirements of alipochromatic ('recessive-white') and coloured canaries (Serinus canaria) during the breeding season

Six pairs of alipochromatic (‘recessive-white’) canaries (Serinus canaria) and six pairs of coloured canaries were kept through a complete breeding cycle while being fed a diet providing 12,000 iu vitamin A/kg. The eggs of three pairs (one recessive-white and two coloured) were all unfertilised and there were only 23 hatchlings (14 recessive-white and nine coloured), of which 14 (10 recessive-white and four coloured) were alive after the first moult. However, there was no clinical, biochemical or pathological evidence that the recessive-white canaries were suffering from vitamin A deficiency or that the coloured canaries were suffering from vitamin A toxicity, suggesting that the diet met the vitamin A requirements of both groups.