Kris Brijs

The CoO‐ELM model: A theoretical framework for the cognitive processes underlying country of origin‐effects

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an extended version of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM‐model) to explain and predict which of the four cognitive processes that are distinguished in the literature, with respect to Country of Origin (CoO), can be expected to occur: the halo‐effect, the summary construct‐effect, the product attribute‐effect or the default heuristic‐effect.Design/methodology/approach – Contrary to most of the previous theoretically‐oriented work on cognitive CoO‐effects, the epistemological background of the CoO‐ELM model proposed in this paper is of an inductive nature with theoretical propositions being derived from empirical data already gathered in the existing studies.Findings – The outcome of this paper is a flow chart model leading to a set of theoretical propositions on which cognitive CoO‐effects can be expected to occur under different situational contexts.Research limitations/implications – This paper only focuses on the explanation of cognitive CoO‐effects,...

Investigating the influence of working memory capacity when driving behavior is combined with cognitive load: An LCT study of young novice drivers

Distracted driving has received increasing attention in the literature due to potential adverse safety outcomes. An often posed solution to alleviate distraction while driving is hands-free technology. Interference by distraction can occur however at the sensory input (e.g., visual) level, but also at the cognitive level where hands-free technology induces working memory (WM) load. Active maintenance of goal-directed behavior in the presence of distraction depends on WM capacity (i.e., Lavies Load theory) which implies that people with higher WM capacity are less susceptible to distractor interference. This study investigated the interaction between verbal WM load and WM capacity on driving performance to determine whether individuals with higher WM capacity were less affected by verbal WM load, leading to a smaller deterioration of driving performance. Driving performance of 46 young novice drivers (17-25 years-old) was measured with the lane change task (LCT). Participants drove without and with verbal WM load of increasing complexity (auditory-verbal response N-back task). Both visuospatial and verbal WM capacity were investigated. Dependent measures were mean deviation in the lane change path (MDEV), lane change initiation (LCI) and percentage of correct lane changes (PCL). Driving experience was included as a covariate. Performance on each dependent measure deteriorated with increasing verbal WM load. Meanwhile, higher WM capacity related to better LCT performance. Finally, for LCI and PCL, participants with higher verbal WM capacity were influenced less by verbal WM load. These findings entail that completely eliminating distraction is necessary to minimize crash risks among young novice drivers.

The relation between cognitive control and risky driving in young novice drivers

This study investigated if decreased cognitive control, reflected in response inhibition and working-memory performance, is an underlying mechanism of risky driving in young novice drivers. Thirty-eight participants aged 17 to 25 years old, with less than 1 year of driving experience, completed a simulated drive that included several risky driving measures. Measures of response inhibition and verbal working memory were negatively associated with the standard deviation of the lateral lane position. Response inhibition, but not working memory, was also negatively related with the detection of, reaction to, and crashes with road hazards. Unexpectedly, increased cognitive control did not always relate to decreased risky driving. Visuospatial working-memory performance related positively with yellow-light running and negatively with the minimal following distance inside the city center. The findings evidence the role of cognitive control in explaining risky driving in young novice drivers. This relationship, however, differed per cognitive function and per driving parameter. Implications for future research and traffic safety interventions are discussed.

A simulator study on the impact of traffic calming measures in urban areas on driving behavior and workload.

This study examined the impact of traffic calming measures (TCM) on major roads in rural and urban areas. More specifically we investigated the effect of gate constructions located at the entrance of the urban area and horizontal curves within the urban area on driving behavior and workload. Forty-six participants completed a 34km test-drive on a driving simulator with eight thoroughfare configurations, i.e., 2 (curves: present, absent)×2 (gates: present, absent)×2 (peripheral detection task (PDT): present, absent) in a within-subject design. PDT performance (mean response time (RT) and hit rate) indicated that drivers experienced the road outside the urban area as cognitively less demanding relative to the more complex road environment inside the urban area. Whereas curves induced a speed reduction that was sustained throughout the entire urban area, variability of acceleration/deceleration and lateral position were increased. In addition, PDT performance indicated higher workload when curves were present (versus absent). Gate constructions locally reduced speed (i.e., shortly before and after the entrance) and slightly increased variability of acceleration/deceleration and lateral position nearby the entrance. However, the effects on SDL-A/D and SDLP are too small to expect traffic safety problems. It can be concluded that both curves and gate constructions can improve traffic safety. Notwithstanding, the decision to implement these measures will depend on contextual factors such as whether the road serves a traffic-, rather than a residential function.

Inhibitory Control and Reward Predict Risky Driving in Young Novice Drivers – A Simulator Study

The purpose of this study is to unravel the cognitive mechanisms that underlie risky driving in young novice drivers. Based on the two pillars of the Dual Systems Model of adolescent risk taking, the authors hypothesized that (1) lower capacity for cognitive control (inhibitory control), (2) a rewarding context, and (3) the interaction of these predict risky driving and constitute part of the cognitive basis for the large number of crashes in the young novice driver population. Two groups different in age (n=31, 17-18 year-olds; n=22, 22-24 year-olds), but equal in driving experience participated in the experiment. Each participant completed two 28km test-drives in a STISIM M400 driving simulator. In the first drive, participants were asked to drive as they normally do. For the second drive, participants were told they could obtain a monetary reward for completing the drive as fast as possible, although for each collision or traffic violation (except speeding), penalty time would be imposed. Inhibitory control was measured by means of a stop signal reaction time task (SSRT). Measures of risky driving included: standard deviation of lateral lane position (SDLP), responses to critical events, speeding, and red light running. The authors found that: (1) inhibitory control still improves within the young driver population; (2) lowered inhibitory control had a driving specific effect: drivers with lower inhibitory control (SSRT) had a higher SDLP; (3) a rewarding context predicts risky driving as speeding and red light running occurred more often in the trip with than without reward.

70 km/h speed limits on former 90 km/h roads: effects of sign repetition and distraction on speed

Objective: It was investigated how speed limit repetition and distraction affect drivers’ speed management throughout a road section where the imposed speed limit is not in accordance (too low) with road design. Background: It is not clear how driving speed evolves and to what degree speed limit repetition is necessary on roads where the imposed speed limit is not in accordance (too low) with road design. It is furthermore of interest how all these factors are influenced by driver distraction. Method: In a driving simulator, 47 volunteers completed one trip with and without distraction. Within each trip, three configurations were presented: speed limit sign repetition after every intersection, repetition only in the middle of a segment, or no repetition. Results: Distraction lowered driving speed. Speed management varied depending on speed limit repetition. The speed limit was exceeded more often when speed limit signs were repeated less frequently. When drivers were not reminded of the limit, speed linearly increased throughout the segment. In all three configurations, speed increased toward the end of the segment, but this increase was largest when there had been no repetition at all of the speed limit. Conclusion: In low-demanding road designs that allow drivers to exceed the speed limit, limit repetition is necessary. Frequent repetition may be preferred, as speed management was most homogenous in that case. Application: The proposed analysis of speed management throughout a section increases our understanding of how speed evolves and thereby shows where repetition of the speed limit is necessary.

Drivers’ behavioral responses to combined speed and red light cameras

BACKGROUND Numerous signalized intersections worldwide have been equipped with enforcement cameras in order to tackle red light running and often also to enforce speed limits. However, various impact evaluation studies of red light cameras (RLCs) showed an increase of rear-end collisions (up to 44%). OBJECTIVE The principal objective of this study is to provide a better insight in possible explaining factors for the increase in rear-end collisions that is caused by placing combined speed and red light cameras (SRLCs). METHOD Real-world observations and driving simulator-based observations are combined. Video recordings at two signalized intersections where SRLCs were about to be installed are used to analyze rear-end conflicts, interactions and driver behavior in two conditions (i.e., with and without SRLC). Furthermore, one of these intersections was rebuilt in a driving simulator equipped with an eye tracking system. At this location, two test conditions (i.e., SRLC and SRLC with a warning sign) and one control condition (i.e., no SRLC) are examined. The data of 63 participants were used to estimate the risk of rear-end collisions by means of a Monte Carlo Simulation. RESULTS The results of the on-site observation study reveal decreases in the number of red and yellow light violations, a shift (i.e., closer to the stop line) in the dilemma zone and a time headway reduction after the installation of the SRLC. Based on the driving simulator data, the odds of rear-end collisions (compared to the control condition) for the conditions with SRLC and SRLC+warning sign is 6.42 and 4.01, respectively. CONCLUSION The real-world and driving simulator observations indicate that the risk of rear-end collisions increases when SRLCs are installed. However, this risk might decrease when a warning sign is placed upstream.

Investigating risky, distracting, and protective peer passenger effects in a dual process framework.

Prior studies indicated higher collision rates among young novice drivers with peer passengers. This driving simulator study provided a test for a dual process theory of risky driving by examining social rewards (peer passengers) and cognitive control (inhibitory control). The analyses included age (17-18 yrs, n=30; 21-24 yrs, n=20). Risky, distracting, and protective effects were classified by underlying driver error mechanisms. In the first drive, participants drove alone. In the second, participants drove with a peer passenger. Red-light running (violation) was more prevalent in the presence of peer passengers, which provided initial support for a dual process theory of risk driving. In a subgroup with low inhibitory control, speeding (violation) was more prevalent in the presence of peer passengers. Reduced lane-keeping variability reflected distracting effects. Nevertheless, possible protective effects for amber-light running and hazard handling (cognition and decision-making) were found in the drive with peer passengers. Avenues for further research and possible implications for targets of future driver training programs are discussed.

Ordinal Evaluation: A New Perspective on Country Images

We present a novel use of ordinal evaluation (OrdEval) algorithm as a promising technique to study various marketing phenomena. OrdEval algorithm has originated in data mining and is a general tool to analyze data with ordinal attributes, including surveys. Its many favorable features, including context sensitivity, ability to exploit meaning of ordered features and ordered response, and robustness to noise and missing values in the data, offer marketing practitioners a perspective, not available with classical analytical toolbox. We present a case study applying OrdEval algorithm on country-of-origin (COO) information. We demonstrate some interesting advantages it has to offer and show how to extract and interpret new insights allowing marketing practitioners to further optimize the management of products abroad. Data for the empirical study was gathered by means of 1225 questionnaires. Results indicate that, contrary to the classical view on COO-effects, the processing of country-related cognitions, affects and conations is a non-linear and asymmetric phenomenon. The practical implications of this finding for marketers are discussed more in detail.

Measuring working memory load effects on electrophysiological markers of attention orienting during a simulated drive

Abstract Intersection accidents result in a significant proportion of road fatalities, and attention allocation likely plays a role. Attention allocation may depend on (limited) working memory (WM) capacity. Driving is often combined with tasks increasing WM load, consequently impairing attention orienting. This study (n = 22) investigated WM load effects on event-related potentials (ERPs) related to attention orienting. A simulated driving environment allowed continuous lane-keeping measurement. Participants were asked to orient attention covertly towards the side indicated by an arrow, and to respond only to moving cars appearing on the attended side by pressing a button. WM load was manipulated using a concurrent memory task. ERPs showed typical attentional modulation (cue: contralateral negativity, LDAP; car: N1, P1, SN and P3) under low and high load conditions. With increased WM load, lane-keeping performance improved, while dual task performance degraded (memory task: increased error rate; orienting task: increased false alarms, smaller P3). Practitioner Summary: Intersection driver-support systems aim to improve traffic safety and flow. However, in-vehicle systems induce WM load, increasing the tendency to yield. Traffic flow reduces if drivers stop at inappropriate times, reducing the effectiveness of systems. Consequently, driver-support systems could include WM load measurement during driving in the development phase.