Kwame Akyeampong

Revisiting Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) in Ghana

When Ghana became independent in 1957 it had one of the most developed education systems in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). Over the next forty years its education system expanded to provide places for most, but not all, of its children. Since the education reforms of the late 1980s enrolments have grown steadily; this contrasts with some SSA countries with universal free primary education policies, which have experienced short periods of rapid growth. Education reforms in Ghana, however, have fallen below expectations. The Free and Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) programme introduced in 1995 promised universal education by 2005. This paper revisits Ghana’s FCUBE policy for clues as to why it did not achieve the target goal and especially why poorest households seem to have benefited least from it. One disappointment with FCUBE is that its input did not go far enough to offset the opportunity costs of schooling for the poorest households by abolishing all forms of fees and reducing significantly the indirect costs associated with attending school. The incidence of late entry, overage attendance and poor households’ need for child labour also posed a further threat to the benefits FCUBE promised.

A vision of successful schooling: Ghanaian teachers’ understandings of learning, teaching and assessment

This article reports on an empirical study exploring Ghanaian teachers’ understandings of teaching, learning and assessment. It argues that received views of poorly trained teachers with untheorized and badly reasoned professional practices may mask a more complex situation. In defining learning, teachers in the study reproduced models consistent with transmission or behaviouristic theories. However, when asked to describe their most successful experiences, teachers’ understandings were more in accord with social constructivism. Also, their aspiration towards interactive models of classroom assessment was circumscribed by the normal context of assessment discourse and by bureaucratic requirements. The article concludes that, given the right circumstances, teachers can reflect on their experiences and produce a more sophisticated account of teaching and learning. It suggests ways in which in‐service work might make use of these insights, recommending further attention to the discursive frames of teachers’ professional reflections within dialogue and active engagement through school‐based coaching.

Aid for Self-Help Effort? : A Sustainable Alternative Route to Basic Education in Northern Ghana

Northern Ghana presents an interesting case of the limitations of the conventional school system in reaching underserved and deprived populations with basic education. Due to the peculiar nature of its demographic characteristics and the socio-economic challenges that confront this area of Ghana, conventional school systems are unable to thrive and make an impact in remote areas. Many of these communities are sparsely populated and scattered making distance a hindrance to school. attendance. A major barrier to access and participation is also the cost. In poor deprived communities whether or not children attend school usually depends on the direct or indirect costs to families. Direct costs arises from schooling accessories such as uniforms, books and writing materials whilst the indirect costs are largely in the form of income lost from the child’s potential employment or contribution to household income through direct labor. Yet another obstacle is the official school calendar which usually conflicts with families’ economic activities to which the child is a crucial contributor. A growing number of NGOs and civil society organizations are introducing basic education initiatives that have been adjusted to reflect these demographic and socio-economic realities. Many of the NGOs try to promote the spirit of self-help efforts among poor rural people using strategies that encourage community participation and ownership of the basic education initiative. This paper describes and analyses the effort of one such NGO education programme known as the “School for Life” (SFL) in Northern Ghana. The paper examines the extent to which the activities of this organization are actually promoting self-help efforts in sustaining an aid initiated basic education programme. The acid test for aid effectiveness is what happens when it phases out - in that case is the initiative sustainable? The paper argues that for true sustainability to be achieved there is the need for a concerted working relationship between the aid programme provider and local government institutions because of the potential benefits that this relationship can bring in sustaining the programme once external support ends. Finally, using the SFL programme as an example, it argues that the key to promoting greater participation and commitment among rural communities towards basic education, is by showing that it can actually open up access to higher levels of education without conflicting with the socio-cultural and economic activities of the society.

Rethinking Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in Africa: An Analysis of the Curriculum of Teacher Education in the Teaching of Early Reading and Mathematics.

This paper reports research on the initial teacher training and continuing professional development of teachers in six African countries (Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda). The focus of the research was on the teaching of early reading and mathematics. The curriculum of both these areas was analysed in terms of (i) implementation by providers such as Colleges of Education, and (ii) impact in schools. The study found that there were many and deep gaps in the curriculum taught and consequently in teacher knowledge and skills in these two crucial subject areas. The paper sets out a series of recommendations for addressing this problem including an overall alternative approach to teacher education that emerges from the research findings as a whole.

Public–private partnership in the provision of basic education in Ghana: challenges and choices

Growing private‐sector participation in basic education service delivery in many developing countries has led to calls for greater partnership arrangements with the public sector to improve access for poor and disadvantaged groups. In Ghana there is some interest in forging closer public–private partnerships to improve access for children who have been out of mainstream education or have difficulty accessing public schools. By examining three examples of non‐state provision that have had links with the public sector to improve access, this paper evaluates the impact of such partnerships to draw lessons for policy and practice. An important conclusion the paper draws is that for public–private partnerships that serve the needs of disadvantaged groups to work, it is important that they take into account both the diversity and context‐specific educational access needs of the groups concerned.

Decentralisation policy and practice in Ghana: the promise and reality of community participation in education in rural communities

In 1987, the government of Ghana embarked on a process to decentralise education management to districts as part of wider social and democratic governance reforms. A central part of this reform was the prescription of active community participation in the affairs of schools within their locality. This paper explores the different meanings community participation had for school community stakeholders. It examines the multiple understandings of how community and school relations work and the factors which influence this relationship. Drawing on case study data, it argues that much of the theoretical and policy expectations on representation and participation in education by community members are only evident in form, but not as intended in practice. In poor rural contexts, it is often the local elite and relatively more educated members of the community, who become the new brokers of decision-making and, through their actions, close up the spaces for representation and participation by community members in the affairs of schools. Furthermore, the extent of community participation appears to be shaped by a ‘social contract’ based on the principle of reciprocity of roles between the community and schools, and that increasingly teachers feel accountable to the traditional hierarchical educational structure, and not to the community. The paper argues that the realisation of decentralisation policy in education has to contend with the realities of local politics of influence in the community, and tap into the positive side of this influence to improve education service delivery.

Teacher Educators' Practice and Vision of Good Teaching in Teacher Education Reform Context in Ghana.

Teacher education in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) has been criticized for the lack of attention to learning to teach in real classrooms, which limits the opportunity for pre-service teachers to successfully introduce learner-centered pedagogy in African primary school classrooms. To address this problem, Ghana has implemented a teacher education reform since 2004 to incorporate practicum. However, the critical role of teacher educators has been overlooked by policymakers, and few studies have qualitatively investigated their practice and vision. The study draws on qualitative data from the Ghana component of the Teacher Preparation in Africa (TPA) research project to explore eight teacher educators’ practice and vision of good teaching of primary mathematics. The study found that teacher educators’ practice and vision of good teaching consist of the use of teaching and learning materials (TLMs) and small group activities following specific steps without understanding the principles of learner-centered pedagogy that could be applied in a variety of classroom contexts and mathematics topics. The study also identified the hierarchical relationship between teacher educators and school teachers as a major challenge for effective practicum, limiting the opportunity to transform teacher educators’ vision and practice of primary mathematics teaching. Recommendations for enhancing professional learning opportunities for teacher educators are offered.

Recent Trends in School Social Control in Sub-Saharan Africa

This chapter draws from existing literature, analysis of school policy texts and codes of discipline, to examine the context and history of school social control in sub-Saharan Africa using some evidence from Ghana. It highlights how school hierarchies, institutional surveillance mechanisms, and the code of discipline produce school social control in the sub-Saharan Africa context. It discusses school hierarchical organization as a mechanism for control based on a case study in Ghana. The discussion examines how teachers’ own schooling and training experiences make them agents of school social control and how corporal punishment plays a key role concluding with the role that foreign languages play in controlling access to further education and future social and economic opportunities.

The Effect of Early Marriage Timing on Women's and Children's Health in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia

BACKGROUND Age of marriage is a barrier to mothers health care around pregnancy and children health outcomes. OBJECTIVE We provide evidence on the health benefits of postponing early marriage among young wives (from age 10-14 to age 15-17) on womens health care and childrens health for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Southwest Asia (SWA). METHODS We use data for 39 countries from the Demographic and Health Surveys to estimate the effects of postponing early marriage for womens health care and childrens health outcomes and immunization using matching techniques. We also assess whether womens health empowerment and health constraints are additional barriers. FINDINGS We found that in SSA, delaying the age of marriage from age 10-14 to age 15-17 and from age 15-17 to age 18 or older leads to an increase in maternal neotetanus vaccinations of 2.4% and 3.2%, respectively; gains in the likelihood of postnatal checks are larger for delayed marriage among the youngest wives (aged 10-14). In SWA, the number of antenatal visits increases by 34% and the likelihood of having a skilled birth attendant goes up to 4.1% if young wives postpone marriage. In SSA, the probability of children receiving basic vaccinations is twice as large and their neonatal mortality reduction is nearly double if their mothers married between ages 15-17 instead of at ages 10-14. The extent of these benefits is also shaped by supply constraints and cultural factors. For instance, we found that weak bargaining power on health decisions for young wives leads to 11% fewer antenatal visits (SWA) and 13% less chance of attending postnatal checks (SSA). CONCLUSIONS Delaying age of marriage among young wives can lead to considerable gains in health care utilization and children health in SSA and SWA if supported by policies that lessen supply constraints and raise womens health empowerment.