L. Monique Ward

The Role of the Media in Body Image Concerns Among Women: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental and Correlational Studies

Research suggests that exposure to mass media depicting the thin-ideal body may be linked to body image disturbance in women. This meta-analysis examined experimental and correlational studies testing the links between media exposure to womens body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, and eating behaviors and beliefs with a sample of 77 studies that yielded 141 effect sizes. The mean effect sizes were small to moderate (ds = -.28, -.39, and -.30, respectively). Effects for some outcome variables were moderated by publication year and study design. The findings support the notion that exposure to media images depicting the thin-ideal body is related to body image concerns for women.

Understanding the Role of Entertainment Media in the Sexual Socialization of American Youth: A Review of Empirical Research.

Abstract Whereas it is often suggested that the media have assumed a prominent role in the sexual socialization of American youth, empirical evidence supporting this premise has been slow to accumulate. To provide both the fuel and motivation for future research in this area, this review presents a comprehensive overview of the existing state of the field, covering research on both magazine and television content, and on both high school and college student samples. In addressing the three central issues of what, how, and where/to what extent, this review first examines the nature and prevalence of sexual content both on TV and in magazines. It then describes several theoretical mechanisms outlining how potential influence might occur, and then presents findings examining such influences. Overall, evidence indicates that frequent and involved exposure to sexually oriented genres such as soap operas and music videos is associated with greater acceptance of stereotypical and casual attitudes about sex, with higher expectations about the prevalence of sexual activity and of certain sexual outcomes, and, even occasionally, with greater levels of sexual experience. In light of these findings, I offer a working conceptual model of the media’s role as a sexual socialization agent, and conclude by outlining 14 specific suggestions for future research.

Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement

This project examines several ways in which television viewing might relate to adolescents ‘ sexual attitudes and expectations. Although previous findings have indicated significant associations between viewing amounts and various sexual outcomes, contributions of viewer involvement in this equation have been underemphasized. Drawing on the premises of several theoretical approaches, viewer involvement was defined to include viewing motivation, active viewing, perceived realism, perceived relevance, and identification. Associations were then examined between eight dimensions of TV viewing and seven sexual outcome variables for a multiethnic sample of 314 students aged 18–20. Both viewing amount and viewer involvement emerged as significant correlates of participants’ sexual attitudes, expectations, and behavior. In particular, greater exposure and greater involvement with TVs sexual content were associated with stronger endorsement of recreational attitudes toward sex, higher expectations of the sexual a...

Who's That Girl: Television's Role In The Body Image Development Of Young White And Black Women

Although findings indicate a connection between frequent media use and greater body dissatisfaction, little attention has focused on the role of race. Accordingly, this study investigates the relation between television viewing and body image among 87 Black and 584 White women. Participants reported monthly viewing amounts of mainstream and Black-oriented television programs as well as body attitudes as measured by the Eating Disorders Inventory, the Body Esteem Scale, and the Body Shape Questionnaire. Results suggest different patterns predicting body image for White and Black women. Among White women, viewing mainstream television predicted poorer body image, while viewing Black-oriented media was unrelated to body image. Among Black women, viewing Black-oriented television predicted healthier body image, while viewing mainstream television was unrelated to body image. Ethnic identity also predicted healthier body image among Black women, and appeared to moderate, to some extent, the contributions of viewing Black-oriented programming.

Cycles of shame: Menstrual shame, body shame, and sexual decision‐making

Although numerous factors have been implicated in womens sexual decision‐making, less attention has been focused on how their feelings about their bodies and reproductive functions affect these processes. Recent findings link menstrual shame to lower levels of sexual activity and higher levels of sexual risk; however, the mechanisms behind these relations remain unexplored. Accordingly, this study investigates the contributions of menstrual shame and global body shame to sexual decision‐making among 199 undergraduate women. Using structural equation modeling, we evaluated a mediated model, whereby menstrual shame is indirectly associated with sexual decision‐making via body shame. As expected, women who reported feeling more comfort about menstruation also reported more body comfort and, in turn, more sexual assertiveness, more sexual experience, and less sexual risk.

Anything from making out to having sex: men's negotiations of hooking up and friends with benefits scripts.

Popular media and academic literature often portray men as happy beneficiaries of nonrelational or casual sex—a view that is consistent with traditional notions of masculinity. This study examined the validity of this notion, using semistructured interviews to explore ways that 19 college-age men defined and enacted “hooking up” and “friends with benefits” scripts. Mens definitions reflected both standard and alternate conceptions of these scripts, and their experiences indicated variability in intentions and outcomes. Whereas a few men embraced the no-strings-attached nonrelational scripts, most rejected the script or enacted an amended version that allowed for greater relational connection. Further, their experiences were not all positive and were not all devoid of emotional connection. These alternative enactments challenge the pro-masculine, universally positive conceptualization of nonrelational sex portrayed in the media and in some empirical research.

Silence speaks volumes: Parental sexual communication among asian american emerging adults

Although parents greatly influence children’s early understandings of sexuality, little is known about how sexual communication transpires in Asian American families. Accordingly, the authors examined the amount and type of parental sexual communication recalled by 165 Asian American college students. Parents were perceived as providing very little information about a range of sexual topics. Communication was most minimal from fathers, among sons, and in homes marked with language barriers. At the same time, however, most participants could recall receiving restrictive sexual messages, in particular, daughters and participants having less acculturated parents. Qualitative results shed light on the specific types of sexual messages that parents provided. Together, results suggest that Asian American parents use implicit and nonverbal ways to communicate their sexual values.

Pleasure Reading: Associations Between Young Women's Sexual Attitudes And Their Reading Of Contemporary Women's Magazines

Associations between magazine use and sexual attitudes were explored among 205 female college students. Measures assessed reading levels of adult-focused (e.g., Cosmopolitan) and teen-focused (e.g., Seventeen) contemporary womens magazines, reading motivations, sexual attitudes, and femininity ideologies. Frequent reading of adult-focused magazines was associated with weaker support of sexual stereotypes about men, of a view that equates sex with risk, and of womens reports of self-censorship. In contrast, frequent reading of teen-focused magazines was associated with stronger endorsement of male sexual stereotypes. In addition, reading womens magazines intently for sex advice was associated with stronger support of both male sexual stereotypes and a sexually assertive female role. Implications are discussed in terms of both relevant media theories and of magazines as sources of sexual scripts.

Average Joes: Men's relationships with media, real bodies, and sexuality

Although numerous studies have examined women’s body attitudes in relation to media and sexuality, fewer studies have explored these relations among men. Accordingly, the authors investigated the contributions of media to men’s body attitudes and examined how such attitudes relate to sexual decision making. One hundred eighty-four male undergraduates reported media use, body attitudes, and sexual behaviors. Regular media use was related to greater acceptance of the shape and performance of one’s body but decreased comfort with aspects of one’s real body, such as hair and sweat. Comfort with these aspects of one’s real body predicted greater sexual assertiveness and risk-reduction behaviors. Furthermore, comfort with similar aspects of female partners’ real bodies was related to greater intimacy in sexual relationships.

ARE ALL MINORITY WOMEN EQUALLY BUFFERED FROM NEGATIVE BODY IMAGE? INTRA-ETHNIC MODERATORS OF THE BUFFERING HYPOTHESIS

Body dissatisfaction is normative among European American women, and involvement with predominant culture or linking self-worth to weight may intensify the association between body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness for women of color. Our study investigated whether orientation to other ethnic groups (Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure) and weight-based contingency of self-worth moderate the relationship between body satisfaction and drive for thinness (Eating Disorder Inventory) among college-age African American, Asian American, and European American women. Survey responses from undergraduates (N = 905) were collected, and multiple regression analyses showed that, for African Americans, appearance esteem was positively associated with drive for thinness among those who defined their self-worth as contingent on weight or who identified with ethnic outgroups. Appearance esteem was independently associated with drive for thinness among Asian Americans and European Americans, but no moderation was found. European American women who define self-worth as contingent on weight were higher in drive for thinness, regardless of their body mass index or appearance esteem. Identifying the mechanisms through which some women may be at risk for internalizing restrictive body ideals is key for understanding experiences of the body for diverse women.