Lars Svåsand

Party Institutionalization in New Democracies

The literature on democratisation emphasises the contribution of political parties, and in that context the importance of party institutionalization. But this concept remains relatively unexplored. Our article first considers the relationship between party institutionalization and party system institutionalization, pointing out that they are not necessarily convergent. We then review the existing literature on party institutionalization, indicating weaknesses and contradictions, before offering our own analytic model. In the final section we identify some of the key considerations arising when this model is applied to the particular circumstances of democratic transition in the Third World.

State subsidies to political parties: Confronting rhetoric with reality

This article investigates the political impact of the introduction of state subsidies to political parties. The arguments for and against subsidising political parties are outlined. Different models of party subsidies, and their regulatory frameworks, are discussed. We find little evidence of a cross‐national impact of the introduction of party subsidies. The subsidies cannot explain the decline in party membership. Nor is there evidence to suggest that the subsidies were introduced as a response to membership decline. There is no support for the allegation that party subsidies lead to the petrification of party systems. The subsidies have not meant that other income sources have lost their significance for political parties.

Party leadership and party institutionalisation: Three phases of development

Related to the general thesis that different situations call for different leadership skills and orientations, this article focuses upon the changing leadership needs of one type of political party ‐ the ‘entrepreneurial issue party’ ‐ as it matures from birth to institutionalisation. Drawing upon relevant literature on leadership of revolutions, leadership of social movements, leadership of organisations, and leadership generally, the authors present empirical evidence for the argument that different leadership needs exist at three stages of party development: the periods of identification, organisation, and stabilisation. Related propositions are addressed from the experiences of entrepreneurial parties in Denmark and Norway.

Introduction: The Contribution of Parties to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation

This special collection focuses on political parties and party systems in the process of democratic consolidation. The articles it includes are, with one exception, a selection of papers that were presented to a European Consortium of Political Research (ECPR) Joint Sessions workshop on ‘Parties, party systems and democratic consolidation in the Third World’ in Easter 2001. These articles, and indeed the excellent discussion generated during the workshop, have ranged widely in their approach and central concerns. Questions have been raised, for instance, about the analytic status of parties (whether they should be seen as the dependent or independent variable); ways of classifying party systems; the role of ideology in party differentiation; and the impact of international or global influences on the nature and opportunity horizons of parties and party systems. Rather than pursue all these questions further in this introduction, however, they will only be broached to the extent that they have relevance for its main theme. That theme is the part played by both parties individually and party systems in the process of democratic consolidation.

Turnaround: The National Resistance Movement and the Re-introduction of a Multiparty System in Uganda

This article addresses the process behind the decision of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) to reintroduce multiparty politics in Uganda. Restrictions on party activity were introduced when the NRM assumed power in 1986 and were upheld in a referendum in 2000. In March 2003 the NRM u-turned on the issue and agreed a return to multiparty politics in Uganda. The article seeks to explain why the NRM leadership sanctioned a transition to multiparty politics and, secondly, how the NRM leadership sought to remain in control of the transition process. We find that the reintroduction of a multiparty system in Uganda primarily was stimulated by internal conflicts between factions within the NRM and much less by international (donor) pressure. We show that the decision to move to multiparty politics was made contingent on other constitutional changes which enabled the executive and the central political leadership to remain in power.

Membership in Party Organizations and the Problem of Decline of Parties

This article questions assumptions in the literature dealing with party decline. First, European aggregate membership data do not support a general conclusion of party decline. Second, individual-level data for Norway demonstrate the complexities of the relationship between membership, party identification, activity in parties, and membership stability. Third, we discuss societal changes commonly associated with party decline, such as the rise of corporatism, the new political movements, and the rise of the electronic media. The aurthors argue that these developments change the structural position of parties (external) and the relationship between different levels of the party organization itself (internal). While such developments may lead to party decline, they also give party organizations new political maneuverability. Furthermore, the growth of new parties, the politicization of new arenas, and the nationalization of party apparatuses counteract the factors associated with party decline.

Fissions and fusions, foes and friends: Party system re-structuring in Malawi in the 2004 general elections

The issue of presidential term limits is an important political norm on the African continent, but the effects of this on the institutionalization of the party systems have so far not been analyzed. The authors argue that the third presidential election represents a window of opportunity for politicians aspiring for the top position, leading to party fragmentation (fissions) and party mergers (fusions). Politicians pursue an office-seeking strategy, weakly connected to ideological priorities. The combination of leadership-centered parties, executive dominance, and the institutional rules for presidential elections encourage turbulence in the party system in the context of the third elections. The authors illustrate these processes with the case of Malawis 2004 presidential and parliamentary elections, which led to a number of new party formations. After the elections, fusions of parties and coalitions among parties became alternative strategies for winning office.

Stuck in transition: electoral processes in Zambia 1991–2001

Zambia has held three multiparty elections since its restoration of democracy in 1991. This peaceful transition raised expectations of a smooth process towards democratic consolidation. But similar to experiences in other African countries and Eastern Europe, the Zambian democratic process has remained stuck in a ‘transitional zone’ between actual democracy and authoritarian systems. This article argues that Zambian elections fall short of the expectations of a democratic process due to the institutional uncertainty surrounding elections and the weakness of the Zambian Electoral Commission in particular. The continued uncertainty – of the rules and regulations guiding elections and electoral administration – has maintained the same party in power through three consecutive elections, despite an alarming economic record.

Cultural policy, leisure and voluntary organizations in Norway.

This article argues that the new Norwegian cultural policy, launched in the mid 1970s, strongly emphasizing cultural democracy and administrative decentralization, has had important unintended consequences. Stressing the value of activity as a crucial part of the new ‘comprehensive concept of culture’, the policy has supported exactly those tendencies it was meant to counteract, i.e. cultural standardization, individualism, privatisation and commercialization. The new relativistic and ‘anthropological’ perspective taking as a point of departure that we all ‘have’ culture regardless of social status, geographical setting and ways of life, implies that real planning becomes impossible, because nobody can argue from a cultural perspective that certain types of activities are more important than others. As a result the new local cultural administrations have to a large extent become service institutions for voluntary organizations.

In search of the impact of international support for political parties in new democracies: Malawi and Zambia compared

Democracy assistance programmes have gradually included support for political parties in addition to support for civil society, parliaments and the electoral process. But, does international party assistance contribute to party and party system institutionalization? This analysis addresses the issue of impact of external support for political parties using the case of one donor, the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD) and the impact of its activities in Malawi and in Zambia. NIMDs stated objectives are to promote party system institutionalization as well as the institutionalization of individual parties. Its funds are spent to support parties in three ways: strengthening inter-party dialogue, strengthening party organizations, and improving party-civil society linkages. This contribution assesses what NIMD hoped to achieve with their party support programmes and how recipient party representatives in Zambia and Malawi evaluate the support provided by NIMD. The analysis suggests that there are significant challenges for international party support. While the political parties indicate a priority for bilateral support, NIMD views such bilateral support as less effective for their overall ambitions. The discussion shows furthermore that enhancement of civil society–party relations through external funding modalities may be particularly challenging.