Per Selle

Does Participation in Voluntary Associations Contribute to Social Capital? The Impact of Intensity, Scope, and Type

Voluntary associations are often ascribed a fundamental role in the formation of social capital. However, scholars disagree on the extent to which face-to-face contact, that is, active participation, is necessary to create this resource. This article examines the impact of participation in associations on social capital using three dimensions: intensity (active vs. passive participation), scope (many vs. few affiliations) and type (nonpolitical vs. political purpose). Whereas those affiliated display higher levels of social capital than outsiders, the difference between active and passive members is absent or negligible. The only cumulative effect of participation occurs when a member belongs to several associations simultaneously, preferably with different purposes. The article challenges the notion that active participation is necessary for the formation of social capital and suggests that more attention should be paid to the importance of passive and multiple affiliations within associations.

Government and voluntary organizations : a relational perspective

Examines the role of voluntary organizations in the welfare sector and their relations to public welfare schemes. The text also examines voluntary organizations and their relations to government and public policies.

Participation and Social Capital Formation: Norway in a Comparative Perspective1

Voluntary associations are often ascribed a fundamental role in the formation of social capital. However, scholars disagree on the extent to which face-to-face contact, i.e. active participation, is necessary to create this resource. The impact of participation in associations on social capital is examined using three dimensions: intensity (active vs. passive participation), scope (many vs. few affiliations) and type (non-political vs. political purpose). While those affiliated display higher levels of social capital than outsiders, the difference between active and passive members is absent or negligible. The only cumulative effect of participation occurs when the member belongs to several associations simultaneously, preferably ones with different purposes.

The Importance of Passive Membership for Social Capital Formation

Advocates of the virtues of participation assert that in a true democracy, citizens should be able to take an active part in civic matters, at least on the local level (Pateman 1970; Macpherson 1977). Regular elections and the existence of formal rights are by themselves not sufficient for democracy; they need to be supplemented by opportunities for direct democratic influence. On the other hand, pluralists emphasize how a diverse range of associations may act as representatives on the political scene, regardless of the activity level of the participants (Almond and Verba 1963). National political systems are too large to allow face-to-face discussion between all citizens. Therefore, the presence of associations is an institutional requirement if the combined values or interests of individuals are to be mediated.

The third sector in Scandinavia

This article argues that it is possible to identify a particular Scandinavian third sector model. In contrast to what might generally be expected in view of the relatively huge public sectors of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the third sector in this model is neither small nor insignificant. Its constituent traits are rooted in history, in popular movements and in trust-based matual dependency between third sector organisations and public authorities. Though challenged by recent developments, this model is still a cornerstone of the Scandinavian welfare state.

Origins of Social Capital: Socialization and Institutionalization Approaches Compared

Abstract How is social capital generated and sustained? In Putnams micro-oriented socialization perspective, the main source is face-to-face interaction between members of voluntary organizations. This has so far met little empirical support. Consequently, macro-oriented scholars have concluded that organizations are unimportant to social capital formation. We argue that voluntary organizations do play a pivotal role, not as socialization agents, but as institutions within which social capital is embedded. Using European Social Survey data, we analyse the antecedents of social capital both at the individual and regional level. We find that members are more trusting than non-members, but active members are no more trusting than passive members. Furthermore, regional effects are much stronger than individual effects. Regions with high social capital are characterized by broad participation patterns and visible, politically active organizations. Based on these findings, we put forward an alternative institutional account of how organizations create and sustain social capital. Strong and visible voluntary organizations demonstrate the utility and rationality of collective action and provide individuals with a democratic infrastructure, which can be activated when needed. We support this by showing that a positive perception of the democratic value of organizations is strongly related to trust, while personal, time-intensive involvement has no explanatory power.

Membership in Party Organizations and the Problem of Decline of Parties

This article questions assumptions in the literature dealing with party decline. First, European aggregate membership data do not support a general conclusion of party decline. Second, individual-level data for Norway demonstrate the complexities of the relationship between membership, party identification, activity in parties, and membership stability. Third, we discuss societal changes commonly associated with party decline, such as the rise of corporatism, the new political movements, and the rise of the electronic media. The aurthors argue that these developments change the structural position of parties (external) and the relationship between different levels of the party organization itself (internal). While such developments may lead to party decline, they also give party organizations new political maneuverability. Furthermore, the growth of new parties, the politicization of new arenas, and the nationalization of party apparatuses counteract the factors associated with party decline.

The eroding of representative democracy in Norway

Abstract The Norwegian Power and Democracy Study concluded that representative government is eroding. Popular participation has moved from long-term organizations and political parties to short-term action groups and associations with immediate concerns. Public sector reforms seem to weaken municipal autonomy and strengthen central control in emphasizing greater efficiency and better quality of municipal service provision. The judicialization of politics has strengthened the legal system and weakened the autonomy of local democracy, while the expansion of market forces further affects the span of parliamentary rule. Mass media have become politically more independent, while they adapt more closely to economic forces and the quest for return of investments. There has, accordingly, been centralization of economic power through mergers and acquisitions following the globalization of the Norwegian economy, while corporatism is partly weakened and partly restructured. The so-called Scandinavian (or Nordic) model is increasingly strained, putting pressure on the Norwegian social contract that has been characterized by high levels of institutional centralization balanced by a high level of citizen control.

Generations and Organizational Change

These concerns reflect the current mood in many traditional voluntary associations in Norway. Leaders in a wide range of fields within the sector seem to agree that the communal spirit is waning. It is commonly claimed that careerists, individualists and egoists with little time to spare represent an increasing proportion of the population. As a study of changing value patterns in Norwegian society shows, these values are difficult to reconcile with commitment to voluntary organizations (Hellevik, 1996). Furthermore, since young people distinguish themselves as the most egocentric and materialist age group of all (op. cit.), one might expect slow erosion of voluntary organising following the exit of older, more idealistic generations from the population.

The Rise and Fall of Popular Mass Movements Organizational Change and Globalization - the Norwegian Case

This article is about the erosion of the Norwegian democratic infrastructure, with particular emphasis on the causes and effects of the transformation of the voluntary sector and the decline of social movements. We are seeing a turning away from large-scale ideological mass movements and an increase in smaller and nimbler associations that are better at catering for individual needs and wishes, but poorer in plugging members into the central decision-making institutions. This is putting increasing pressure on the Norwegian social contract, which has been characterized by high levels of institutional centralization balanced by high levels of citizen control. We relate these important changes in the democratic infrastructure to the impact of globalization, highlighting structural similarities between globalization and the new organizational forms of political or civic participation. Our argument is that globalization is a process that has particular structural characteristics, and that these characteristics are giving shape to the new forms of civic participation that are now emerging in Norway (and probably also in the rest of Scandinavia).