Lassi Heininen

The Importance of Northern Dimension Foreign Policies in the Geopolitics of the Circumpolar North

The end of the Cold War dramatically altered geopolitical relationships within the circumpolar North. Part of this change involved the development of a regionalised governance structure stressing the common issues faced by human populations within the circumpolar North, regardless of their national or ethnic origins. Signatories to a cadre of new circumpolar agreements include eight nation-states or the “Arctic states” (Canada, USA, Russia, Finland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland) as well as indigenous peoples organisations and supranational organisations such as the European Union. Equally important, although somewhat less tangible, is the fact that in addition to the new forms of international and regional governance now giving shape to an emerging circumpolar “northern” space, are several new discourses concerning the scale and nature of circumpolar regionalism and the critical new environmental, human security, and economic development challenges which it faces. Rather than using the rhetoric of tension and confrontation common throughout the Cold War era, these new northern discourses stress regional co-operation, human security and sustainable development. This paper examines the political structures and actors which give shape to emerging geopolitical versions of the international “North”. It explores the relationship between the new international geopolitical space of this circumpolar region and the northern dimension policies of constituent states, in order to identify links between the geopolitical consensus which has become the potential basis for the international structure and goals of governance within the circumpolar region. Particular emphasis is placed upon Canada, the USA and the European Union, where northern dimension policies are most developed.

Impacts of Globalization, and the Circumpolar North in World Politics

One of the main themes of current international relations and geopolitics of the Circumpolar North is the relationship between the Arctic and the outside world. This relation has been shaped by the heightened strategic importance of the region, utilization of (and competition over) strategic natural resources, and impacts of global change and globalization upon the region. This paper investigates the character of this relationship over time and argues that, in addition to negative impacts (or side-effects) of globalization and climate change, positive developments also have emerged that make the Circumpolar North an interesting and relevant area in world politics. The latter include the growing geostrategic importance of the region, the scientific view of the North as a “laboratory for scientific research,” the diversity of nature and cultures found in circumpolar regions, the growing emphasis on innovations in governance and co-management, and finally the fact that the North might now be (or soon become) a model for good governance.

Human security, the Arctic Council and climate change: competition or co-existence?

We argue that the current understanding of the Arctic as a region fraught by increasing tension and competition under conditions of climate change is an incomplete story. It ignores many salient developments in furthering co-operation and human security agendas, and marginalises some of the more complex and interesting developments within the region. Such changes in ‘natural states’ do not, in and of themselves, create geopolitical and political instability. Rather, it is the way in which change is understood as a problem for institutional and international organs that creates conditions for co-operation or competition. In the Arctic today, the balance is tipped in favour of co-operation, but the situation is complex and many actors have vested interests.

Arctic Security – Global Dimensions and Challenges, and National Policy Responses

AbstractStability and decrease of military tension are relevant in the new Northern order which replaced the confrontation of the Cold War period. This was a conscious choice by the Arctic states. In the international system with constant regional wars and the fight against terrorism this is an achievement – it would be possible to have another kind of order. In the 2010s this order is in a test, when the Arctic and its natural resources, as well as options to them, have become a target of growing global interest. The ongoing multifunctional change and geopolitical shift from a periphery into global has also meant changes in Arctic security environment and governance: Stability is not threatened by the military presence and the deployed nuclear weapon systems but more by rapid climate change and its environmental and socio-economic impacts. Everyday security of the people is threatened. Energy security has become a new discourse of Northern security. The strategic position of the region’s natural resources may create new tension, and economic and political competition. Followed from this, and concentrating on Arctic security, there are new dimensions and challenges, which require new and more global political responses. This article opens with a brief, theoretical discussion on how security is (re)defined, and how different security concepts are implemented. Second, it describes and defines a state of Arctic security by using three methods. Finally, the article studies and discusses national strategies and policies of the Arctic states regarding how they (re)define security and respond to the global and regional security challenges.

The "Global Arctic" as a new geopolitical context and method

ABSTRACT The term GlobalArctic was officially launched at the 2014 Arctic Circle Assembly (see: www.globalarctic.org). The idea for this term was not conceived in a vacuum; rather it was the outcome of a critical analysis on the state of Arctic geopolitics and security in the era of globalization with complex and deeply interdependent ecological, economic, environmental, cultural, political, and societal processes. It is important to note that global impacts in the Arctic are nothing new, since the region has historically been a part of the international system. Further, the discourse of regionalism, “the Arctic as a distinctive region”, of the 1990s is no longer sufficient and does not explain the current state of Arctic geopolitics. This article argues that the term “global Arctic” is not a discourse, but a new research and teaching method, an analytical means to study and examine significant changes both in the Arctic region and globally, as well as the current more complex geopolitical context with deeper and more obvious interdependence.

The Arctic, Baltic, and North-Atlantic 'cooperative regions' in 'Wider Northern Europe': - similarities and differences

ABSTRACT This article provides a broader perspective on the ‘wider’ Northern European regions – i.e. the Baltic Sea, North Atlantic, and (European) Arctic – and attempts to disclose both similarities and differences of regional cooperation. The article argues that the changing environmental state of the Arctic might influence the other two international cooperative regions of the Northern Hemisphere in regard to climate – and thus the ecology – as well as transport and security issues. First, the transition from the confrontation of the Cold War period to international cooperation in ‘wider’ northern Europe is assessed. Second, the twofold development of the Arctic due to national policies within, and growing global pressure over, the region is explored. Third, similarities and differences in terms of cooperation patterns involving the three cooperative regions are compared. The article argues that inter-linkages between the Baltic Sea, North Atlantic, and Arctic regions need to be explored in order to improve cooperation in the entire ‘mega-region’ of the European Arctic.

Special Features of Arctic Geopolitics—A Potential Asset for World Politics

The world’s geopolitical situation is influenced by constant warfare, growing military tension and threat of nuclear weapons, global terrorist attacks & counterattacks and fearful responses by people. There is growing geopolitical tension between Russia and the West as Russia is been seen as untrustworthy in its foreign policy, as well as lack of trust between the US and its NATO allies causing uncertainties, growing support for protectionism and distancing the US from multilateral cooperation. This provides excuses for an arms race, a growth in military expenses, constant fights against international terror, and the persistent presence of NATO to enlarge Western governing structures. These findings are important parts of the bigger geopolitical picture, which reflects world politics, the global economy, as well as global relationships between nations. However, this picture is not complete, since there are good arguments for fewer wars, less poverty, more stability and prosperity than 20 years ago. There are also common concerns about environmental degradation and global impacts of climate change, as well as common interests between the Arctic states, including the US and Russia, regarding the Arctic and Arctic issues. Interestingly, new East-West tensions have not (yet) affected the region’s high geopolitical stability, since circumpolar cooperation by states, indigenous peoples and sub-national governments remains resilient. This chapter argues that the globalized stable Arctic is an exceptional political space in world politics, and has potential to be (come) an asset for world politics. This does not result from the classical approach of Great-Game geopolitics, but from applying a critical and constructivist approaches to geopolitics and emphasizing the environment. [The chapter describes the recent transformation of Arctic geopolitics from classical to critical, analyzes common interests between the Arctic states and discusses relevant features of Arctic geopolitics & security as prerequisites for high stability, and final, concludes by asking what might be special features of Arctic geopolitics].

Contesting the Arctic. Politics and imaginaries in the Circumpolar North

The book consists of the eight chapters: ‘Imagining the Arctic’ as an introduction, 6 Chapters on imaginaries – ‘Terra nullius’, ‘Frozen Ocean’, ‘Indigenous statehood’, ‘Resource frontier’, ‘Transc...

Finnish Perspectives on the Arctic and Asia

The fact that the Arctic region of the 21st century has generated global interest and become globalized, is a certain paradox of international politics and IR. Finland is one of the Arctic states, who have recently identified itself as an “Arctic expert” who “complies with the principles of sustainable development”. India is a new Arctic Council’s observer country with emerging scientific, environmental and economic interests in the Arctic, as well as globally due to significant worldwide implications of the globalized Arctic. There is a fundamental asymmetry between Finland and India in size, scale, and geopolitical position, as well as in history, societies and power status. At the same time, there are common interests between the two countries when it comes to science, research, and education, and international cooperation including that in the Arctic. This chapter presents describes and discusses Finland as an Arctic country and stakeholder, as well as the perspectives of Finland on Asian approach, namely that of India, in the new context of the globalized Arctic.”