Lauren Basson

Decision Analysis Frameworks for Life‐Cycle Impact Assessment

Life‐cycle impact assessments (LCIAs) are complex because they almost always involve uncertain consequences relative to multiple criteria. Several authors have noticed that this is precisely the sort of problem addressed by methods of decision analysis. Despite several experiences of using multipleattribute decision analysis (MADA) methods in LCIA, the possibilities of MADA methods in LCIA are rather poorly elaborated in the field of life‐cycle assessment. In this article we provide an overview of the commonly used MADA methods and discuss LCIA in relation to them. The article also presents how different frames and tools developed by the MADA community can be applied in conducting LCIAs. Although the exact framing of LCIA using decision analysis still merits debate, we show that the similarities between generic decision analysis steps and their LCIA counterparts are clear. Structuring of an assessment problem according to a value tree offers a basis for the definition of impact categories and classification. Value trees can thus be used to ensure that all relevant impact categories and interventions are taken into account in the appropriate manner. The similarities between multiattribute value theory (MAVT) and the current calculation rule applied in LCIA mean that techniques, knowledge, and experiences derived from MAVT can be applied to LCIA. For example, MAVT offers a general solution for the calculation of overall impact values and it can be applied to help discern sound from unsound approaches to value measurement, normalization, weighting, and aggregation in the LCIA model. In addition, the MAVT framework can assist in the methodological development of LCIA because of its well‐established theoretical foundation. The relationship between MAVT and the current LCIA methodology does not preclude application of other MADA methods in the context of LCIA. A need exists to analyze the weaknesses and the strengths of different multiple‐criteria decision analysis methods in order to identify those methods most appropriate for different LCIA applications.

Reinterpreting Industrial Ecology

This article argues that industrial ecology has, to date, largely engaged with the ecological sciences at a superficial level, which has both attracted criticism of the field and limited its practical application for sustainable industrial development. On the basis of an analysis of the principle of succession, the role of waste, and the concept of diversity, the article highlights some of the key misconceptions that have resulted from the superficial engagement with the science of ecology. It is argued that industrial ecology should not be seen as a metaphor for industrial development; industrial ecology is the ecology of industry and should be studied as such. There are manifold general principles of ecology that underpin our understanding of the world; however, the physical manifestation and causal effects of these principles are particular to the system and its constituent elements under analysis. It is thus proposed that context‐specific observation and analysis of industry are required before theoretical and practical advancement of the field can be achieved.

‘Habitat’ Suitability Index Mapping for Industrial Symbiosis Planning

By ‘working with the willing’, the National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP) has successfully facilitated industrial symbiosis throughout the United Kingdom and, in the process, delivered significant economic and environmental benefits for both Programme members and the country as a whole. One of the keys to NISPs success is that, unlike failed attempts to plan and construct eco‐industrial systems from scratch, the Programme works largely with existing companies who have already settled in, developed, and successfully operate within a given locale. This article argues that existing and mature industrial systems provide the best prospects for identifying opportunities for, and ultimately facilitating, industrial symbiosis. Due to levels of diversification and operational fundamental niches that, in the fullness of time, develop within all industrial systems, industrially mature areas are deemed to be industrial symbiosis ‘conducive environments’. Building on the conservation biology concept of a habitat suitability index, the article presents a methodology for comparing a potential site for eco‐industrial development to a known baseline industrial ‘habitat’ already identified as being highly conducive to industrial symbiosis. The suitability index methodology is further developed and applied to a multi‐criteria evaluation geographic information system to produce a ‘habitat’ suitability map that allows practitioners to quickly identify potential industrial symbiosis hotspots (the methodology is illustrated for England). The article concludes by providing options for the development of symbiosis suitability indices and how they can be used to support the facilitation of industrial symbiosis and regional resource efficiency.

Participatory development and analysis of a fuzzy cognitive map of the establishment of a bio-based economy in the Humber region.

Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) is a widely used participatory modelling methodology in which stakeholders collaboratively develop a ‘cognitive map’ (a weighted, directed graph), representing the perceived causal structure of their system. This can be directly transformed by a workshop facilitator into simple mathematical models to be interrogated by participants by the end of the session. Such simple models provide thinking tools which can be used for discussion and exploration of complex issues, as well as sense checking the implications of suggested causal links. They increase stakeholder motivation and understanding of whole systems approaches, but cannot be separated from an intersubjective participatory context. Standard FCM methodologies make simplifying assumptions, which may strongly influence results, presenting particular challenges and opportunities. We report on a participatory process, involving local companies and organisations, focussing on the development of a bio-based economy in the Humber region. The initial cognitive map generated consisted of factors considered key for the development of the regional bio-based economy and their directional, weighted, causal interconnections. A verification and scenario generation procedure, to check the structure of the map and suggest modifications, was carried out with a second session. Participants agreed on updates to the original map and described two alternate potential causal structures. In a novel analysis all map structures were tested using two standard methodologies usually used independently: linear and sigmoidal FCMs, demonstrating some significantly different results alongside some broad similarities. We suggest a development of FCM methodology involving a sensitivity analysis with different mappings and discuss the use of this technique in the context of our case study. Using the results and analysis of our process, we discuss the limitations and benefits of the FCM methodology in this case and in general. We conclude by proposing an extended FCM methodology, including multiple functional mappings within one participant-constructed graph.

Business‐To‐Business Information Technology User Practices at End of Life in the United Kingdom, Germany, and France

Business‐to‐business (B2B) electronics account for a significant volume of the electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) put on the market. Very little B2B waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is reported as collected in the European Union (EU) in compliance with the WEEE Directive, which uses the policy principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR) to ensure that WEEE is managed correctly. This presents a barrier to parties looking for access to the waste. Company practice dictates the channels into which B2B WEEE flows following primary use. This article presents a study that engaged with company actors directly to get a better understanding of business information technology (IT) EEE asset management. Data were collected to determine the barriers current practice could present to the collection of B2B IT EEE at end of life and the implications of these for the development of policies and strategies for EPR. A questionnaire was developed and data were gathered from organizations in three EU countries - the United Kingdom, Germany, and France - stratified by size. Some notable findings were that there are several routes by which end‐of‐life B2B WEEE can flow. The recycling and refurbishment of B2B IT units at end of use was shown to be commonplace, but it is likely that these units enter streams where they are not reported. The actors disposing of their units did not have information on the management or disposition of these streams. It is concluded that to achieve the goals of EPR for B2B IT WEEE, the networks and the operational practices of these streams need to be better understood when developing strategies and policies.

Review of life cycle assessment studies of coal-fired power plants with carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of the principal options for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from coal-fired power plants. It involves capturing carbon dioxide from power plants, transporting it and storing it in secure places including former oil and gas fields and marine aquifers. However, the use of coal does not only contribute to the global climate change, it also has other important environmental impacts, for example: acidification, eutrophication and depletion of non-renewable resources. In order to assess whether or to what extent the introduction of CCS to coal-fired power plants will contribute to reducing these and other environmental impacts, life cycle assessment (LCA) which considers a full supply chain from resource extraction to ultimate waste management should be conducted. This paper is part of the background research for the development of a full LCA study of coal-fired power plants with carbon capture and storage. Through a literature review of a wide range of international studies, particular attention is given to understanding the scopes of former LCA studies and their environmental assessments. The results of the review show that, although previous LCA studies have been informative to some extent, no complete LCA has been performed yet on coal combustion power plants with CCS, with important gaps identified in terms of the consideration of parts of the supply chain, alternative technologies and potentially important impact categories. In addition to presenting the key findings from this review, this paper presents the future research strategy being applied to contribute to filling these gaps.

Defining Relevance and Finding Rules: An Agent-Based Model of Biomass Use in the Humber Area

The field of industrial ecology applies ecosystem theory to industrial production, human consumption and societies. This article presents a case study of the development of the bio-based economy in the area surrounding the Humber estuary in the North-East of England. The study developed an agent-based model to simulate the evolution of the industrial system. We explain how the qualitative research process led to the development of a toy model that has successively been specified.

Using statistical models of book sales to assess the greenhouse gas reduction potential of print on demand

Significant volumes of remainders and returns add to the environmental burden of book publishing. The use of digital print technology to print books on demand has been advocated as a means to reduce this. Using a statistical model of books sales we estimate the greenhouse gas emissions savings that might be achieved through the displacement of conventional print fulfillment models with print-on-demand and short run digital print technologies. Under our assumptions we found a reduction in emissions of over 10% could result when digital print runs of around 2000 copies become economic. Industry literature indicates this condition is likely to be met by emerging digital printing presses, suggesting that this technology can play a role in helping the industry reach targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This work demonstrates the utility of statistical simulations of markets for estimating the effect on emissions of changes in print-on-demand economics. Future work would refine the model by incorporating the impact of different genres on sales patterns, and also the impact of sales figures on return rates, rather than using an industry average figure.