Laurence Alison

The organized/disorganized typology of serial murder: myth or model?

Despite weaknesses in the organized/disorganizedclassification of serial killers, it is drawn on for “offender profiles,” theories of offending, and in murder trials. This dichotomy was therefore tested by the multidimensional scaling of the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings derived 100 murders committed by 100 U.S. serial killers. Results revealed no distinct subsets of offense characteristics reflecting the dichotomy. They showed a subset of organized features typical of most serial killings. Disorganized features are much rarer and do not form a distinct type. These results have implications for testing typologies supporting expert opinion or to help understand variations in criminal acts, as well as the development of a science of investigative psychology that goes beyond offender profiling. The organized/disorganized dichotomy is one of the most widely cited classifications of violent, serial offenders. Although first introduced by the special agents of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Training Academy at Quantico in an examination of lust and sexual sadistic murders (Ressler, Burgess, Douglas, Hartman, & D’Agostino, 1986) the distinction has since been put forward to differentiate all sexual homicides and also types of arson in Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, and Ressler’s (1992) Crime Classification Manual. These authors have made the distinction between organized and disorganized offenders on criteria that they claim can be drawn from an examination of the crime scene, the victim, and forensic reports. Ressler et al. (1986) claimed that “. . . facets of the criminal’s personality are evident in his offense. Like a fingerprint, the crime scene can be used to aid in identifying the murderer” (p. 291). They proposed that offenders’ behavioral and personality characteristics can be determined from evidence at a crime scene (Ressler et al., 1986). This “fingerprint” is proposed to take one of two distinct forms, either organized or disorganized. The organized offender is described as leading an orderly life that is also reflected in the way he commits his crimes. Highlighting some proposed characteristics, he is claimed to be of average to high intelligence, socially competent, and more likely than the disorganized offender to have skilled employment. It is also claimed that he is apt to plan his offenses, use restraints on his victim, and to bring a weapon with him to commit the murder and to take the weapon away with him from the crime scene. In contrast, the crime scene of the disorganized

Is offender profiling possible? Testing the predicted homology of crime scene actions and background characteristics in a sample of rapists

Purpose. Conventional approaches to offender profiling assume a homology of the characteristics of offenders with their crime scene actions: the more similar two offenders are with respect to background characteristics, the higher the resemblance in their crime scene behaviour. This implicit working hypothesis is tested empirically. Methods. The study is based on a sample of 100 British male stranger rapists. These individuals were indexed with respect to the similarity in their crime scene actions as derived from witness statements. They were then compared with respect to their socio-demographic features and criminal histories as derived from police records. In a correlational analysis, we tested whether increased similarity in one domain (offence behaviour) coincided with higher resemblance in the other domains (socio-demographic features and previous convictions). Results. There is no positive linear relationship for any of the comparisons, i.e. rapists who offend in a similar fashion are not more similar with respect to age, socio-demographic features (such as employment situation and ethnicity) or their criminal records. Conclusions. These findings indicate no evidence for the assumption of a homology between crime scene actions and background characteristics for the rapists in the sample. We argue that this result suggests that the homology assumption is too simplistic to provide a basis for offender profiling. Implications for future research include the search for a suitable framework for offender profiling that is grounded in personality psychology. Further, methodological considerations are discussed, such as the potential application of probabilistic scales.

Sadomasochistically Oriented Behavior: Diversity in Practice and Meaning

One hundred and eighty-four subjects (22 women and 162 men) who were members of two sadomasochistically oriented clubs answered a semistructured questionnaire containing items relating to a variety of sexual behaviors. Using a multivariate statistical analysis that geometrically represents the co-occurrence of individual actions as a visual array (Guttman (1954). In Lazarfeld, P. E. (ed.), Mathematical Thinking in the Social Sciences, Free Press, Glencoe, IL.) four qualitatively different sexual scripts emerged: hypermasculinity; administration and receiving of pain; physical restriction; and psychological humiliation. Although similar themes have been suggested before, this study demonstrated their empirical base. Humiliation was significantly associated more with females and with heterosexual orientation in men, while hypermasculinity was associated with males and with homosexual orientation in men.

Unobtrusive measurement: using police information for forensic research:

This article explores how unobtrusive research methods popularized by Webb et al. (1966) can be utilized in forensic research. In particular, the value of the approach is considered with special reference to examining investigative processes and criminal behaviour. Webb et al.’s three non-reactive types of unobtrusive measures (physical traces, archival material and simple observation) are discussed in relation to a variety of types of material collected across the course of police enquiries. The breadth and variation of this material is emphasized with special consideration of its utility for research. We illustrate how the limitations and benefits identified by Webb et al. are echoed within the forensic domain and how close attention to the methods of collecting such material developed by researchers may improve the effectiveness of investigations.

The development of a filter model for prioritising suspects in burglary offences

Abstract This paper discusses the development of a filter model for prioritizing possible links in dwelling burglary. The filters utilize the central aspects of crime scene information that is available and accessible to investigators in burglary, namely geo-spatial, temporal, behavioural, and dwelling information. The proposed filters were analysed using a sample of 215 dwelling burglaries committed by 43 serial burglars (i.e. 5 offences each) in order to determine the sequence in which the filters should be considered in prioritizing possible linked offences. The results indicated that the following order (i.e. better performance to worse performance) was most effective at linking offences, utilizing: (1) geo-spatial information, (2) temporal aspects, (3) behavioural information and, lastly, (4) dwelling characteristics. Specifically, the results indicated that offences in close proximity to one another should be given priority. Further, any offence occurring within a 28-day span before or after the index offence should be given priority. The paper argues that behavioural and dwelling characteristics are less effective for linking than geo-spatial and temporal information because the former two aspects are influenced significantly by situational and contextual cues on offender decision-making.

Pragmatic solutions to offender profiling and behavioural investigative advice

This paper outlines a brief history of the evolutionary trajectory of offender profiling and illustrates the three broad strands (investigative, clinical, and statistical) that emerged in the 1970s–1990s. We then indicate how a more pragmatic, interdisciplinary practitioner–academic model has emerged in recent years and go on to describe the range of contributions that are now made across the criminal justice field. More recently termed ‘behavioural investigative advice’ in the UK, the paper then argues that whilst a range of potential contributions exist (from linking crimes, risk assessment, provision of bad character evidence, investigative interviewing advice, to geoprofiling), the nature of the process by which that contribution occurs is not yet well understood. The review of these potential contributions concludes with several suggestions and recommendations for further research and relevant methodologies by which to conduct that research. This includes the requirement to combine conceptual and theory-driven models alongside empirically driven statistical approaches, as well as the requirement to more precisely delineate and describe how contributions are made by behavioural experts through cognitive task analyses and associated methods.

Examining Group Rape: A Descriptive Analysis of Offender and Victim Behaviour:

Two hundred and twenty three group rape offences were collated from archival sources, with the majority of cases from US and UK law reports. This involved 739 separate offenders (722 male and 17 female). Descriptive analyses indicated that this sample of offences tended to be committed by young males (mean age 21 years old) upon approximately same-age female victims. These offences involved multiple sexual acts often accompanied by acts of violence, with just over one-fifth ending in the victim’s death. Victim resistance was relatively rare, although a range of verbal and physical reactions was apparent. The psychological implications of the results are discussed with respect to theories of co-offending.

Toulmin's philosophy of argument and its relevance to offender profiling

This study sought to identify the extent to which claims about the probable characteristics of offenders in ‘offender profiles’ were based on substantive arguments. Because Toulmins (1958) philosophy of argument has been demonstrated as a useful way of breaking down arguments into their constituent parts (Burleson, 1979) we examined the extent to which profiles contained grounds, warrants, backing and rebuttals to support or refute various claims about offenders. Twenty-one profiles, representing a range of ‘profiling styles’, were obtained from a variety of sources. All of these had been used in major criminal investigations either in the UK or internationally. Of the nearly 4,000 claims made, nearly 80% were unsubstantiated. That is, they contained no grounds, warrant, backing or rebuttal. Moreover, less than 31% of the claims were falsifiable. We argue that (a) this demonstrates the need for a careful, systematic evaluation of profiling advice (b) Toulmins structure is one useful method for evaluating such material and for providing a possible framework for such advice.

QUESTIONING SEQUENCES IN CANADIAN POLICE INTERVIEWS: CONSTRUCTING AND CONFIRMING THE COURSE OF EVENTS?

A content analysis of 19 Canadian police interviews with adult witnesses revealed that several of the interviewing strategies used by officers ran counter to the recommendations in the literature. Specifically, interviewers interrupted the witness more than was necessary, rarely employed any cognitive techniques to enhance memory recall and asked far more closed than open-ended questions. Further, in terms of the sequencing of questions, a pattern emerged across interviews that suggested that officers first “help” the witness construct the event and then, through a rapid sequence of “yes/no” questions, seek to confirm the account. We argue that this pattern of questioning may suggest that officers are pursuing an assumed version of events and that exploring interviews from a sequencing perspective may prove beneficial in identifying possible biased versions of events.

Interpreting the accuracy of offender profiles

Two studies investigated the hypothesis that individuals are prepared to perceive ambiguous statements, when presented in the from of an ‘offender profile’, as being relatively accurate descriptions of complete strangers. Study one used a bogus profile with a real case with two distinctly different offender outcomes (one genuine, one fabricated) given to two groups of police officers (n = 24, n = 22). Over half of both groups classified the profile as accurate and, despite distinct differences between the offenders, there were no differences in accuracy ratings of the genuine offender and fabricated offender. Study two examined whether this effect transferred to a genuine profile, again using professional groups (senior police officers, n = 33; forensic professionals, n = 30). Despite receiving different offenders, over 75% of each sample rated the profile as at least somewhat accurate and over 50% as a generally or a very accurate assessment. Mean ratings of the genuine offender did not differ from ratings of the fabricated offender. The majority of individuals rated the profile as useful. These studies lend preliminary support to the hypothesis that individuals tend to construct meaning around ambiguous statements about a third party within the context of offender profiling. We suggest this might be best explained as an extension of the Barnum Effect. The methodological weaknesses of the studies are discussed, as are suggestions for future research.