Lawrence C. Scharmann

Defining versus Describing the Nature of Science: A Pragmatic Analysis for Classroom Teachers and Science Educators.

There appears to be an almost universal commitment among science edu- cators to promote the goal of student understanding of the nature of science. Recent dis- agreements among philosophers of science and between philosophers and other groups such as scientists and science educators about the nature of science, however, leave class- room teachers in a quandry: If experts disagree about the nature of science, how should we decide what to teach students? In this article, the authors first reconsider what level of understanding of the nature of science students should experience so that they can become both intelligent consumers of scientific information and effective local and global citizens. Second, based on an analysis of the literature, it appears that there is a general agreement among science education stakeholders regarding a set of descriptors that can be used to judge which questions or fields of study are more scientific or less scientific than others. Therefore, we propose that most precollege teachers should attempt to teach students how to use these descriptors to judge the relative merits of knowledge claims instead of teaching a set of rules that attempt to demarcate science completely from nonscience. Finally, we suggest two classroom activities based on this proposal and draw some implications for teacher preparation and future research. q 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed 83:493- 509, 1999.

Explicit Reflective Nature of Science Instruction: Evolution, Intelligent Design, and Umbrellaology

The investigators sought to design an instructional unit to enhance an understanding of the nature of science (NOS) by taking into account both instructional best practices and suggestions made by noted science philosopher Thomas Kuhn. Preservice secondary science teachers enrolled in a course, “Laboratory Techniques in the Teaching of Science,” served as participants in action research. Sources of data used to inform instructional decisions included students’ written reaction papers to the assigned readings, transcribed verbal comments made during class discussions and other in-class activities, and final reflection essays. Three iterative implementations of the instructional unit were attempted. The objectives of the study were essentially met. The instructional unit was able to provoke preservice teachers into wrestling with many substantive issues associated with the NOS. Implications concerning the design of explicit reflective NOS instruction are included.

Initial Impacts of No Child Left Behind on Elementary Science Education.

This research examines the impact of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act on elementary science education within a Midwestern state possessing strong national education measures. Elementary teachers (N=164) responded to an online survey, which included both closed-ended and open-ended questions pertaining to science instruction and changes made in science instruction since the implementation of NCLB. More than half of these teachers indicated they have cut time from science instruction since NCLB became a law. The reason given for this decrease in science education was mainly the need to increase time for math and reading instruction.

The influence of students’ cognitive and motivational variables in respect of cognitive conflict and conceptual change

In this study, the relationships among students’ cognitive/motivational variables, cognitive conflict, and conceptual change were investigated. Subjects were 159 seventh graders in Korea. Tests regarding logical thinking ability, field dependence/independence (FDI), meaningful learning approach, failure tolerance, mastery goal orientation, and self‐efficacy were administered to examine students’ cognitive/motivational characteristics. A preconception test and a test of responses to discrepant event were also conducted to examine the degree of students’ cognitive conflict induced by a discrepant event. Computer‐assisted instruction, designed to change an undifferentiated weight‐density concept into a scientific density concept, was then provided to students as a conceptual change intervention. A conception test was administered as a post‐test. The results indicated that FDI was the only statistically significant variable correlated with the degree of cognitive conflict. A stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that logical thinking ability, FDI, and failure tolerance were statistically significant predictors of the conception test scores. Educational implications are discussed.

Cooperative Learning and Preservice Elementary Teacher Science Self-Efficacy.

(1995). Cooperative learning and preservice elementary teacher science self-efficacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education: Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 125-133.

A Dynamic Professional Development School Partnership in Science Education.

The author describes the evolution of a traditional on-campus secondary science methods course into a dynamic field- and campus-based professional development school collaboration. Whereas science teaching methods were taught in an isolated and independent course, they are now integrated within an interdependent experiential semester that carefully integrates teaching methods, professional seminars, interpersonal relations, classroom management, reading strategies, and multicultural education into a dynamic fieldbased curriculum for preservice teachers. A faculty team from the Kansas State University (KSU) Department of Secondary Education conducted a series of meetings to establish a collaborative climate in which to investigate the benefits of simultaneous reform of preservice teacher education and the professional development of inservice teachers. School-based teacher counterparts in mathematics and science piloted several models, performed action research, and worked toward simultaneous improvement based on a reflection or documentation, or both, of best practices. Consistent with reform initiatives identified by the National Research Council (1996), the author documents actions taken to enhance the preparation of preservice teachers at KSU.

Perceived professional needs of Korean science teachers majoring in chemical education and their preferences for online and on‐site training

In this study, we investigated the perceived professional needs of Korean science teachers majoring in chemical education, and examined their preferences for online and on‐site inservice teacher training programmes. The results were also compared with those of preservice teachers. Participants were 120 secondary school teachers and 67 preservice teachers, whose majors were either chemical education or science education with emphasis in chemistry. A questionnaire consisting of a modified Science Teacher Inventory of Need and a section concerning respondents’ demographic information and their use of the Internet was administered. In contrast to previous studies, the perceived needs of Korean inservice and preservice teachers were found to be very strong in all 30 needs assessment items, and their prominent needs were from all seven categories. Preservice teachers indicated significantly greater needs than inservice teachers on several items. Korean teachers generally tended to prefer online inservice to traditional on‐site training programmes, although they still preferred on‐site types of programmes in areas such as conducting laboratory sessions and demonstrating manipulative skills. Preferences for online programmes tended to be stronger among preservice teachers than inservice teachers, and among non‐veteran teachers than in veteran teachers. Educational implications are discussed.

General biology: Creating a positive learning environment for elementary education majors

This article received the “Implications of Research for Educational Practice” award at the 1996 meeting of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. The award is made possible by Carolina Biological Supply. The article was published in The American Biology Teacher, April 1994, pp. 216–220, and is reprinted with their permission.

Role Expectations of the Two-Year College Biology Instructor.

The purpose of this investigation was to collect information on the perceptions and observations of practicing two‐year college biology instructors about their role expectations, and to document a potential inconsistency between preservice graduate training programs and their ability to meet both present two‐year college hiring criteria as well as their associated role expectations. A survey instrument was developed, validated, and responded to by biology instructors from 126 institutions geographically located in 38 states. The respondent population represented an 11% nationwide sample of the 1,169 two‐year institutions which offer a program in general biology. In general, the survey results indicated that while present graduate training programs for two‐year college biology instructors are adequate for fulfilling hiring criteria, they are less than adequate to prepare instructors for their role expectations.

Energy Conservation: A Project for Grades 5–7: Creative Ideas Grand Prize

(1989). Energy Conservation: A Project for Grades 5–7: Creative Ideas Grand Prize. Science Activities: Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 8-13.