Lee W. Frederiksen

Carbon monoxide and smoking behavior.

Abstract This paper reviews the health risks of carbon monoxide and its relationship to smoking behavior. Special emphasis is placed on behavioral determinants of carbon monoxide uptake. The role of carbon monoxide in measurement and modification of smoking risk is also discussed.

Topographical components of smoking behavior

Abstract Topographical characteristics of smoking behavior were studied using three subjects in single-case research designs. Five components of smoking topography were identified and monitored: inter-puff interval; cigarette duration; puff length; puff frequency; and percentage of tobacco burned. Following baselines, subjects were given instructions to modify inter-puff interval, cigarette duration, or both. Results showed that topographical components could be reliably monitored and were sensitive to instructional manipulation. A strong functional interrelationship among components was also observed. These findings support the use of topographical components of smoking as dependent variables. It is suggested that smoking topography be routinely assessed as part of a multiple measurement approach to the evaluation of smoking control programs. The modification of the individual topographical components is also an important step in the development of controlled smoking strategies.

Reliability and Controlling Effects of Three Procedures for Self-Monitoring Smoking

Measurement reliability and controlling effects of 3 procedures for self-monitoring smoking were examined. In Experiment I, subjects monitored their smoking rates using each recording procedure for 1 week. Results showed continuous recording to be the most reliable procedure. Self-reports indicated continuous recording to be most accurate, bothersome to use, and reactive. In Experiment II a between-subject design evaluated the 3 procedures over a 5-week period. Continuous recording led to pronounced reductions in reported smoking rate and greater attrition. Reported smoking rates did not significantly differ at a 6-month follow-up. Results were related to demands imposed by recording procedures and differing inter recording intervals.

Social interaction and smoking topography in heavy and light smokers.

Abstract The effects of social interaction on the topography of smoking behavior of heavy and light cigarette smokers was investigated. Smoking behavior was analyzed via closed circuit television monitoring during periods of informal interpersonal conversation and periods of isolation. Number of cigarettes smoked, number of puffs, cigarette duration, interpuff interval, puff duration, percent of tobacco burned, time with cigarette in mouth, and time with cigarette in hand were analyzed. Heavy and light smokers were affected differentially by the social conditions. Light smokers took more frequent and longer puffs when smoking alone with social interaction functioning to decrease the total amount of smoke inhaled. Heavy smokers were unaffected by the social conditions.

Controlled smoking: Development and maintenance☆

Abstract This study investigated the development and maintenance of controlled smoking (smoking at or below a target rate set by the individual smoker). Two procedures, Programmed Delay and Contingency Contracting, were compared with 16 smokers. Each group served as its own control using a multiple baseline design across subjects. Contingency contracting resulted in less attrition and the more frequent development and maintenance of controlled smoking. Subjects reported using the treatment procedures only occasionally during follow-up. Considerations for further research into controlled smoking are discussed.

Indirect modification of adolescent drug abuse using contingency contracting

Abstract Contingency contracting was used to modify the relationship between a poly-drug abusing adolescent and his family. Concomitant with improvement in the family relationship there was a marked decrease in drug use. Implications for the indirect modification of drug abuse and the importance of negotiation in contingency contracting are discussed.

Treatment of ruminative thinking by self-monitoring

Abstract A 25-yr-old housewife with a 6-year history of ruminative thinking was treated using two self-monitoring procedures. Ruminative episodes were reduced in rate, but not eliminated, by a simple frequency count. A more intensive monitoring procedure (recording seven variables surrounding each episode) virtually eliminated the episodes. These gains were maintained over 6-monthly follow-ups.

Temporal distribution of smoking

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to determine the relationship between temporal distribution of cigarette consumption and overall smoking rate. In Experiment 1, three groups (n = 18 per group) of smokers (high, medium and low rate) were compared. Mean hourly smoking rates were highly correlated across groups with smoking rate accelerating throughout the morning, stabilizing and rapidly decelerating in late evening. Lower overall smoking rates were associated with a lower peak smoking rate and shorter smoking days. In Experiment 2, individual temporal distribution data was presented for eight subjects under high and low rate smoking conditions. A good deal of inter-subject and intra-subject variation was noted. Within subjects temporal distribution during high and low rate conditions tended to be poorly correlated. Low rate smoking was associated with a significantly shorter smoking day.

Training and generalization of commendatory assertiveness: A controlled single subject experiment

Assertiveness involves the use of both effective oppositional and commendatory skills. The latter have received little research attention. In the current multiple baseline case study, a clinically social skills-deficient patient was first trained in commendatory and, later, refusal skills using a role-playing paradigm. Throughout training, both commendatory and refusal skills were continously evaluated to determine whether training one class of skills (commendatory) would generalize to another class of skills (refusal). Largely, the trained commendatory skills did not enhance refusal capabilities, which later had to be specifically trained themselves. Follow-up data is presented, and clinical implications of specificity in social skills training is discussed.

Single-case designs in the modification of smoking

Abstract Single-case research designs are presented as a needed alternative to the frequently used group designs in the study of smoking behavior. Withdrawal, Reversal, Interactional, Multiple Schedule, and Multiple Baseline designs are described, illustrated, and evaluated. The advantages of single-case methodology and its place in an overall research strategy for smoking are discussed.