Richard M. Eisler

Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale Development and Component Factors in the Appraisal of Stressful Situations

It is proposed that masculine gender role socialization affects whether men appraise specific situations as stressful. Behavioral research on stress and coping has remained relatively blind to the possibility of significant gender role differences in appraising events as stressful. Therefore, a new scale was developed to measure masculine gender role stress (MGRS). Data were presented to substantiate hypotheses that MGRS scores (1) significantly distinguish men from women, (2) are unrelated to global measures of sex-typed masculinity, and (3) are significantly associated with at least two measures of self-reported stress (i.e., anger and anxiety). Stressful situations represented on the MGRS scale include cognitive, behavioral, and environmental events associated with the male gender role. Factor analysis demonstrates that these concerns cluster in five particular domains reflecting physical inadequacy, emotional inexpressiveness, subordination to women, intellectual inferiority, and performance failures involving work and sex. The findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioral concepts of stress and coping.

Development of the Feminine Gender Role Stress Scale A Cognitive-Behavioral Measure of Stress, Appraisal, and Coping for Women

The cognitive appraisal of threats and challenges to stereotypical feminine gender role coping behavior was defined as feminine gender role stress (FGRS). This article describes the development of a self-report measure of FGRS. Situations perceived as more stressful for women than for men were categorized by factor analysis, yielding the following constellation of maladaptive stress responses particularly salient for women: (a) fear of unemotional relationships, (b) fear of being unattractive, (c) fear of victimization, (d) fear of behaving assertively, and (e) fear of not being nurturant. Women demonstrated significantly higher FGRS appraisal scores than men, and scores among women showed good 2-week test-retest reliability. The tendency to appraise situations on the FGRS scale as stressful was associated with the tendency to consider daily hassles stressful but was not related to self-perceived femininity in women. It was predicted that women who tend to exhibit the FGRS appraisal style would have more difficulty in coping with stressors related to depression. Supporting this hypothesis, women with higher FGRS scores reported greater depression than those with lower scores. The assessment of FGRS appraisal and coping style in women provides useful information for devising treatment strategies to improve womens health through promotion of adaptive coping.

Masculine gender role stress: Implications for the assessment of men

Abstract There has been increasing awareness of an association between masculine gender role and various physical and mental health disorders in men. Based on a psychosocial view of masculinity we have developed a cognitvely mediated notion of gender role stress (MGRS). This view rests on the assumption that rigid commitment to masculine schemata for the appraisal and coping with lifes problems may both produce stress and result in dysfunctional coping patterns in men. The empirical development of a measure of MGRS is described, and five factors are identified that relate to psychophysiological measures of stress. The review then discusses how reliance on masculine schemata can lead to gender role stress and dysfunctional coping behaviors. These behaviors are presented as the inhibition of emotional expressiveness, reliance on aggression, power, and control, and obsession with achievement and success. The utility of the concept of masculine gender role stress in the assessment of mens health is discussed.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEMININE GENDER ROLE STRESS, BODY IMAGE, AND EATING DISORDERS

The Feminine Gender Role Stress (FGRS) scale was used in two studies to determine whether eating disorders could be linked to the cognitive tendency among women to appraise specific situations as highly stressful because of rigid adherence to the traditional feminine gender role. Study 1 showed the FGRS scale could distinguish eating disorders from other psychiatric disorders in an inpatient setting and from normal college women. This suggests that women who have eating disorders report higher than usual levels of stress as a result of rigid adherence to the traditional feminine gender role. Study 2 looked at cardiovascular reactivity to a “feminine” (i.e., body image threat) and a control stressor and determined the FGRS scale could predict which women are threatened by feminine stressors. Results from these studies suggest feminine gender role stress may be the missing link between cultural values of femininity and vulnerability for eating disorders.

Sex differences in cardiovascular reactivity: Effects of the gender relevance of the stressor.

Suggests that sex differences in cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) in past research are a function of differences in cognitive appraisal of stressors as masculine or feminine tasks. In the present study, we examined the role of the gender relevance of the stressor as a mediator of sex differences in CVR. The CVR of male and female college students (n = 95) to the cold pressor test (CPT) was compared under masculine and gender-neutral instructions during an anticipation phase, a stressor phase, and a recovery phase. Men were expected to show greater CVR than women to the masculine CPT but not to the gender-neutral CPT. Results supported this prediction for systolic blood pressure reactivity and heart rate reactivity but not for diastolic blood pressure reactivity. The potential influence of sex differences in appraisal of situations on CVR and coronary heart disease is discussed.

Cardiovascular Reactivity to Stress in Men Effects of Masculine Gender Role Stress Appraisal and Masculine Performance Challenge

Previous research has shown that excessive cardiovascular reactivity may be important in the development of coronary heart disease. The present study examined the role of masculine cognitive appraisal of stress as a mediator of cardiovascular reactivity in men. The reactivity of men who differed on a measure of individual differences in mens cognitive appraisal of masculine gender role stress (MGRS) were compared on the cold-pressor test under conditions of high and low masculine performance challenge. Under conditions of minimal challenge, it was predicted that high and low-MGRS men would not differ on reactivity. Under high challenge. high-MGRS men were expected to show greater reactivity than were low-MGRS men. Analysis of results for systolic blood pressure confirmed the major predictions. High- MGRS men showed greater systolic blood pressure reactivity than did low-MGRS men under high but not low masculine challenge. The implications of MGRS appraisal for mens health are discussed.

Anger control: An experimental comparison of three behavioral treatments

The present investigation compared the effectiveness of three behavioral treatment strategies with an attention control group in the reduction of anger. forty male undergraduates who scored above the mean on Novacos (1975) Anger Inventory were randomly assigned to cognitive stress inoculatio, problem-solving, social skills, or minimal attention groups. The experimental groups received weekly training over a period of 5 weeks stressing their respective anger control treatment strategies. Measures of blood pressure, pulse, self-reported anger, and behavioral measures of assertion and aggression obtained from role-played angerprovoking situations were obtained pre-and posttreatment. Also, all subjects selfmonitored their responses to real life anger-provoking incidents on a daily basis. Cognitively oriented stress inoculation training significantly decreased anger-provoking cognitions but did not increase appropriate assertiveness. The problemsolving and social skills training both reduced anger-provoking cognitions and increased assertive or socially skilled behaviors. Further, the data suggest that the social skills and problem-solving approaches encouraged subjects to interact competently with the social environment whereas the stress inoculation training tended to foster withdrawal from anger-provoking stimuli.

Masculine gender role stress and intimate abuse: Effects of gender relevance of conflict situations on men's attributions and affective responses.

This article proposes an approach to understanding mens abuse of their intimate partners. The authors suggest that the concept of masculine gender role stress (MGRS) might be useful in identifying men who are predisposed to become abusive with their intimate partners. College men who scored either high or low on an MGRS scale were assessed, and their attributions, affect, and conflict resolution behavior toward their intimate female partners were examined. Participants were presented with masculine-gender-relevant and masculine-gender-irrelevant vignettes involving disputes with their intimate female partners. Results indicated that men high in MGRS attributed greater negative intent; expressed more irritation, anger, and jealousy; and endorsed aggressive responding more often than did men low in MGRS. Implications of MGRS and masculine relevance of conflicts for understanding male abusive behavior are discussed.

The role of masculine gender role stress in expressivity and social support network factors

This study examined the relationship of masculine gender roles stress (MGRS) to nonverbal and verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional dyadic role-play situations. The relationship between masculine gender role stress and emotion-focused social support was also explored. Male subjects were differentiated by their appraisals of gender-related situations as stressful; they were rated on nonverbal facial expression and global verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional situations. It was demonstrated that (a) all subjects were less nonverbally and verbally expressive in situations requiring positive emotional expression than in situations requiring negative emotional expression; (b) high MGRS subjects were less nonverbally expressive than low MGRS participants in both types of situations; (c) however, the high MGRS subjects were less verbally expressive than the lows only under emotionally positive conditions; and (d) while high MGRS subjects did not have smaller social support networks than the lows, they reported less satisfaction with their social support systems. Results were discussed in terms of gender roles and stress-buffering implications.

Masculine Gender-Role Stress, Anger, and Male Intimate Abusiveness: Implications for Men's Relationships

Many men who are strongly committed to the traditional male role experience masculine gender-role stress (MGRS) when faced with situations they perceive as posing a threat to their masculine identity. Men who experience high levels of MGRS often turn to substance abuse as a means of managing insecurities regarding male role expectations, which may increase their risk of engaging in verbally and physically abusive behavior. In the present investigation, we examined the association between MGRS, anger, and intimately abusive behavior among substance-abusing men. Our sample consisted of 57% White and 43% African American male substance abusers. Approximately 72% of participants reported earning less than