Leila T. Hatch

Jurisdiction over endangered species' habitat: The impacts of people and property on recovery planning

Coordinating management among multiple landowners and jurisdictional agencies is one of the greatest challenges confronting conservation planning. In this study, we assessed the impacts on recovery progress of the people and property involved in recovery plan development and implementation. We compared indices of recovery progress among endangered species whose primary habitat falls into one of four federal jurisdiction categories: nonfederal land only, 50% but not all federal land, and all federal land. Species found exclusively on federal land are more likely to be improving in status. This may result from the fact that overall implementation of recovery tasks is lower among species occurring exclusively on nonfederal lands. Revision status, the existence of a centralized database, the designation of a person or committee to coordinate plan implementation, the parties involved in drafting the plan, and those designated as responsible for implementing recovery tasks are also significant factors in determining recovery plan implementation. Specifically, diversity of recovery team membership and the average number of participants increase with increasing federal jurisdiction, and tasks are more likely to be completed when more parties are involved in developing recovery plans. However, fewer recovery tasks are completed as the number of parties involved in implementation increases, suggesting that species on federal lands may benefit from less division of labor among agencies. Differences in drafting plans and administering their implementation appear to be stronger determinants of the observed variation in recovery success than differences in the kinds of threats facing species and their habitats.

Underwater sound from vessel traffic reduces the effective communication range in Atlantic cod and haddock

Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary is located in Massachusetts Bay off the densely populated northeast coast of the United States; subsequently, the marine inhabitants of the area are exposed to elevated levels of anthropogenic underwater sound, particularly due to commercial shipping. The current study investigated the alteration of estimated effective communication spaces at three spawning locations for populations of the commercially and ecologically important fishes, Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Both the ambient sound pressure levels and the estimated effective vocalization radii, estimated through spherical spreading models, fluctuated dramatically during the three-month recording periods. Increases in sound pressure level appeared to be largely driven by large vessel activity, and accordingly exhibited a significant positive correlation with the number of Automatic Identification System tracked vessels at the two of the three sites. The near constant high levels of low frequency sound and consequential reduction in the communication space observed at these recording sites during times of high vocalization activity raises significant concerns that communication between conspecifics may be compromised during critical biological periods. This study takes the first steps in evaluating these animals’ communication spaces and alteration of these spaces due to anthropogenic underwater sound.

NEPAN: A U.S. Northeast Passive Acoustic Sensing Network for Monitoring, Reducing Threats and the Conservation of Marine Animals

I ncreasing anthropogenic activities in our oceans and their subsequent impacts onmarine ecosystems are clear conservation issues of national and global concern. Habitat degradation and the indirect impacts on marine vertebrates from activities associated with oil and gas exploration, renewable energy development, and shipping or fisheries operations threaten marine ecosystem health (Kappel, 2005; Halpern et al., 2007; Read, 2008; Davidson et al., 2012; Rolland et al., 2012). Efficient and cost-effective means to assess species distribution, abundance, and exposure to anthropogenic impacts are critical to the conservation of those species and their habitat. The mission of some federal agencies, such as National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in theUnited States, includes the conservation and recovery of depleted or endangered marine species, in accordance with the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act. Essential to these mandates is an adequate understanding of marine animal abundance, population trends, and seasonal occurrence, as well as an assessment of sources of risks associated with human activities. Among these risks are the effects of underwater noise introduced by human activities on marine animal acoustic communication, hearing and behavior, and the direct interactions of individual animals with fisheries and shipping operations (Cholewiak, Risch et al., 2013). Sound propagates more readily and over greater distances through water than light. Given this and the fact that light is limited at depth, sound is the primary modality of choice for marine animal communication, foraging, and navigation. Many marine species are highly vocal and much of their social, reproductive, and foraging behavior is acoustically mediated. Studies of the vocalizations that these animals emit—although completely reliant on the animals actually vocalizing—can provide information on their occurrence, distribution, relative abundance, and habitat use (e.g., Moore et al., 2006; Van Parijs et al., 2009; Širović & Hildebrand, 2011; Van Opzeeland et al., 2013a; Risch et al., 2014). In the past decade, passive acoustic approaches for studying marine animal populations have seen a rapid expansion in both the tools available and the geographic scope in which studies have been conducted. Substantial imMarch/A provements in the capabilities, availability, and price of acoustic recorders now provide a suite of cost-effective options for researchers to characterize the acoustic ecology of many species. They also provide means to quantify human-introduced noise levels in continuous records gathered in broad areas and over long periods. Recording devices include (a) fixed bottom-mounted acoustic recorders (BMARs) that can record up to several years in a single deployment, (b) hydrophone arrays towed behind survey vessels, (c) acoustic tags that record individual animal calls, (d) autonomous underwater vehicles (such as gliders) and unmanned surface vehicles (capable of navigating along assigned routes) or (e) anchored surface buoys that transmit underwater acoustic data to a land-based location in near real-time (Figure 1a). Hardware pril 2015 Volume 49 Number 2 71 and software refinements now allow data collection in remote areas and detection of species that are difficult to observe using aircraftor vesselbased visual surveys. Emerging theoretical methodologies applied to passive acoustic data provide novel ways to address largescale ecological and behavioral questions. For example, using acoustic indices tomonitor biodiversity and species richness (Fay, 2009; McWilliam & Hawkins, 2013; Staaterman et al., 2013; Staaterman & Paris, 2014), modeling loss of “communication space” (i.e., the space over which the sounds of an animal can be heard by conspecifics, or a listening animal can hear sounds of conspecifics) (Clark et al., 2009; Hatch et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2014), and integrating visual data with passively obtained acoustic data to increase the 72 Marine Technology Society Journa value of each technique (Thompson et al., 2014). Studies of marine mammals, especially cetaceans, have traditionally been conducted visually, from either vessel or aerial platforms. However, visual surveys are limited by daylight and weather conditions, as well as the short amount of time that marine mammals spend at the surface and are therefore detectable (e.g., Clark et al., 2010). Unconstrained by visual detection limitations, passive acoustic studies consistently provide a far richer characterization of marine mammal occurrence and habitat use information beyond seasons and regions where visual surveys previously documented them (e.g., Vu et al., 2012; Van Opzeeland et al., 2013b; Širović et al., 2014). Such passive acoustic studies highlight the need to transition to techniques that more completely characterize the actual disl tribution, occurrence, and relative abundance of marine mammals. Recent passive acoustic studies have also been used to identify spawning fish stocks, map their distribution, and define their seasonal occurrence and longterm persistence (Hernandez et al., 2013; Wall et al., 2012). Combined with active acoustic technology (i.e., in this case active acoustics refers to the high-frequency pinging sound produced by tags implanted in individual mature fish), which provides detailed information on behavior, movement patterns, sex ratios, and site fidelity of fish populations (Dean et al., 2012, 2014; Zemeckis et al., 2014a, 2014b, 2014c), this blended approach offers a novel direction for fisheries management and the conservation of fish stocks. Consequently, the use of passive acoustic methods to describe animal distribution, occurrence, abundance, and behavior is increasingly being recognized as tools not only for basic research but also with clear monitoring roles that substantially improve our capacity to inform conservation strategies. These are conservation and monitoring strategies that undoubtedly further the mission of NOAA and those of its partner agencies. NOAA’s Current Involvement in Passive Acoustic Research and Development Within NOAA, passive acoustic research has steadily grown in importance as a valued technique for improving and modernizing the collection of biological and anthropogenic data. NOAA Fisheries’ Offices of Science and Technology and Protected Resources and the National Ocean Service’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries are currently finalizing an agency-wide Ocean Noise Strategy that aims to guide NOAA’s science FIGURE 1 (a) This image depicts the range of passive acoustic technologies currently available for collecting data. These include bottom-mounted archival marine acoustic recorders, acoustic recording tags deployed on animals, acoustic arrays towed behind survey vessels and autonomous underwater vehicles or gliders, as well as surface-mounted buoys that report back data in near real time. (b) This image depicts the possible “soundscape” of an ocean habitat composed of sound contributions from invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, weather events, and anthropogenic sources such as vessels. Long-term measurements of changes in soundscapes, such as the decrease in biological or increase in anthropogenic sound sources, will enable the relative “acoustic health” of a habitat to be monitored. and management decisions toward a longer-term vision for addressing noise impacts to marine life (http:// cetsound.noaa.gov). The Strategy highlights three major areas: (1) the importance of sound use and hearing for a diverse array of NOAA-managed species, (2) the importance of acoustic habi ta t in support ing NOAA ’ s management of these species, and (3) the data collection, tools, and approaches necessary to characterize soundscapes (e.g., Figure 1b) in order to support speciesand habitat-based management approaches. The Northeast Passive Acoustic Sensing Network (NEPAN) is a premier example of how to go about collecting data to inform the Strategy in a broad reaching manner. NOAA’s Northeast Regional Passive Acoustic Research At NOAA’s Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC), the Passive Acoustic Research Program’s primary focus is collecting passive acoustic data throughout the westernNorth Atlantic Ocean using a variety of the fixed and mobile platforms identified above. Our work—along with research partners at the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS) and regular collaborative interactions withNationalMarine Fisheries Service (NMFS) science centers and headquarters and academia—combines long-term monitoring of marine species to understand their distribution, abundance and ecology, and quantification of anthropogenic noise threats with research focusing on monitoring the soundscapes of various key habitats in our region. Ultimately, our aim is to support broad marine management and conservation strategies throughout NOAA as part of a larger network of scientists conducting passive acoustic research. A Vision for a Comprehensive Passive Acoustic Sensing Network We envision a passive acoustic monitoring network positioned over the continental shelf and upper continental slope off the East Coast of the United States that will employ archival and near real-time passive acoustic systems to meet pressing NOAAmanagement needs. The network would include both fixed and mobile assets that could monitor marine mammals, soniferous fish and ocean noise over both short (days to weeks) and long (months to years) time scales. Some of these assets would be deployed in sensitive or industrial areas, such as wind farm construction sites, shipping lanes, heavily fished areas, or marine reserves, while others would cover broad spatial scales to inform questions about species ’ ranges, migration routes, or presence in unexpected locations. Ideally, some network assets would be collocated with oceanographic observatories (e.g., Northeast Regional Association of Coastal an

Long-term passive acoustic recordings track the changing distribution of North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) from 2004 to 2014

Given new distribution patterns of the endangered North Atlantic right whale (NARW; Eubalaena glacialis) population in recent years, an improved understanding of spatio-temporal movements are imperative for the conservation of this species. While so far visual data have provided most information on NARW movements, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) was used in this study in order to better capture year-round NARW presence. This project used PAM data from 2004 to 2014 collected by 19 organizations throughout the western North Atlantic Ocean. Overall, data from 324 recorders (35,600 days) were processed and analyzed using a classification and detection system. Results highlight almost year-round habitat use of the western North Atlantic Ocean, with a decrease in detections in waters off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in summer and fall. Data collected post 2010 showed an increased NARW presence in the mid-Atlantic region and a simultaneous decrease in the northern Gulf of Maine. In addition, NARWs were widely distributed across most regions throughout winter months. This study demonstrates that a large-scale analysis of PAM data provides significant value to understanding and tracking shifts in large whale movements over long time scales.

Lost listening area assessment of anthropogenic sounds in the Chukchi Sea

The term listening area, refers to the region of ocean over which sources of sound can be detected by an animal at the center of the space. The lost listening area assessment method has been applied to in-air sounds for a noise effects assessment on birds but not, in our knowledge, previously to the assessment of underwater noise effects on marine mammals. The lost listening area method calculates a fractional reduction in listening area due to the addition of anthropogenic noise to ambient noise. It does not provide absolute areas or volumes of space, as does the communication space method; however, a benefit of the lost listening area method is that it does not rely on source levels of the sounds of interest. Instead, the method depends only on the rate of sound transmission loss. We present a preliminary application of the method from an assessment of “cumulative and chronic effects” of noise produced by oil and gas exploration activities used in the National Marine Fisheries Services Effects of Oil a...

The acoustic ecology of soniferous fishes within Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

The effects of prolonged exposure to increasing levels of anthropogenic noise on populations of acoustic signalers are a topic of considerable scientific concern and research focus. Although there is mounting literature on the topic, studies to date have largely focused on terrestrial animals and marine mammals. Low-frequency ocean noise has dramatically increased in the past few decades in certain ocean areas, some of which are important habitats for a number of threatened or endangered marine organisms. One of these areas is Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS), located off the northeast coast of the US and in close proximity to a densely populated coastal zone. Using autonomous acoustic recorders, we investigated the extent and patterns of acoustic behavior in a number of soniferous fishes in several different bottom types within SBNMS. Our results showed significant daily, lunar and spatial patterns in the total number of fish vocalizations and vocalization types. These results were then ...

Characterizing the relative contributions of large vessels to total ocean noise fields: a case study using the Gerry E. Studds Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

Understanding and mitigating the effects of underwater noise on marine species requires substantial information regarding acoustic contributions from shipping. In 2006, we used the U.S. Coast Guards Automatic Identification System (AIS) to describe patterns of large commercial ship traffic within a U.S. National Marine Sanctuary. AIS data were combined with low‐frequency acoustic data from an array of nine‐ten autonomous recording units deployed throughout 2006. Analysis of received sound levels (10‐1000 Hz, root‐mean squared decibels re 1 μPascal ± standard error) averaged 119.5 ± 0.3 at high traffic locations. High traffic locations experienced double the acoustic power of less trafficked locations for the majority of the time period analyzed. Average source level estimates (71‐141 Hz, root‐mean squared decibels re 1 μPascal ± standard error) for individual vessels ranged from 158 ± 2 (research vessel) to 186 ± 2 (oil tanker). Tankers were estimated to contribute two times more acoustic power to the re...

Leveraging big data: How acoustic archives facilitate ecosystem research

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) has developed archives for the long-term stewardship of active and passive acoustic data. Water column sonar data have been collected for fisheries and habitat characterization over large spatial and temporal scales around the world, and archived at NCEI since 2013. Protocols for archiving passive acoustic data are currently being established in support of the NOAA Ocean Noise Reference Station Network project, and monitoring marine mammals and fish. Archives maintain data, but access to these data is a core mission of NCEI that allows users to discover, query, and analyze the data in new and innovative ways. Visualization products continue to be developed and integrated into the data access portal so that researchers of varying backgrounds can easily understand the quality and content of these complex data. Spatially and temporally contemporary oceanographic and bathymetric data are also lin...

A first look at the Ocean Noise Reference Station Network: The soundscape of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

In order to compare long-term changes and trends in soundscapes around the United States, a multi-year network of identical autonomous passive acoustic recording systems, the Ocean Noise Reference Station (NRS) Network, has been established. In partnership with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, and the National Park Service, hydrophone moorings were deployed in 12 discrete soundscapes in the Northeast Pacific and Northwest Atlantic oceans to record underwater ambient sound levels in the 10 to 2200 Hz frequency range. This initial analysis utilized the first year of available data from the NRS deployed in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS), a busy area for both natural and anthropogenic activity. Preliminary results indicate that: (1) broadband (10-2200 Hz) ambient sound levels at SBNMS are stabl...

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Cetacean and Sound Mapping Effort: Continuing Forward with an Integrated Ocean Noise Strategy

To help manage chronic and cumulative impacts of human activities on marine mammals, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) convened two working groups, the Underwater Sound Field Mapping Working Group (SoundMap) and the Cetacean Density and Distribution Mapping Working Group (CetMap), with overarching effort of both groups referred to as CetSound, which (1) mapped the predicted contribution of human sound sources to ocean noise and (2) provided region/time/species-specific cetacean density and distribution maps. Mapping products were presented at a symposium where future priorities were identified, including institutionalization/integration of the CetSound effort within NOAA-wide goals and programs, creation of forums and mechanisms for external input and funding, and expanded outreach/education. NOAA is subsequently developing an ocean noise strategy to articulate noise conservation goals and further identify science and management actions needed to support them.