Leo H. McAvoy

Outcomes from the Components of an Outward Bound Experience.

Means-end theory provides a useful approach for characterizing the relationship among the attributes or components of an experiential education course (the “means”), the benefits, or the outcomes associated with these attributes/course components, and the personal values (the “ends”) these outcomes help to reinforce for course participants. The purpose of this article is to show how this “means-end” perspective can enhance our understanding of the outcomes associated with outdoor adventure programming. A self-administered questionnaire designed to identify the linkages among program attributes (i.e., course components), course outcomes, and personal values was administered to a sample of 216 Outward Bound course participants. Analysis of the data provided useful insights into the outcomes associated with Outward Bound course experiences and with specific course components. The results can assist experiential educators in linking outdoor adventure course outcomes to course components, and in marketing course programs to potential clients.

Native Americans and leisure: state of the research and future directions.

Introduction There is a growing need for a fuller understanding of the leisure values and behaviors of distinct cultural groups as society continues to be characterized by increasing levels of cultural diversity (Kraus, 1994). One group that has received little attention in the leisure research literature is Native Americans, the indigenous peoples of North America. There are a number of reasons why this fuller understanding of Native American leisure is important now, beyond the scholarly inquiry reason of satisfying academic curiosity. Many Native American tribal groups are involved in negotiations with federal, state, and provincial recreation resource land managers concerning the recreational use of tribal lands and resources. These land managers often have little understanding of the worldview of Native Americans and how that worldview may influence Native American leisure values and behaviors. This lack of understanding has led to conflict and other difficulties when trying to work together cooperatively. A number of sovereignty issues concerning hunting, fishing and gathering are active throughout the United States and Canada. Resource management controversies such as access to sacred sites within protected park lands have illustrated the lack of understanding the dominant Euro-American culture often has of the Native American cultural perspective (Rudner, 1994). Some urban and rural recreation agencies are trying to implement recreation program opportunities in Native American communities to address issues such as youth-at-risk, and are finding it difficult to bridge the gap of understanding between the Caucasian and the Native cultures. A fuller understanding of Native American leisure may lead to more cooperation between leisure agencies and Native Americans. And finally, the recent economic impact of Native American gambling facilities on reservations and elsewhere has brought increased tourism and other development (including recreation development) to Native American communities. This development is influenced by, and may influence, Native American leisure values and behaviors. Our interest in this article has developed from our personal and professional efforts in learning more about various Native American cultures and how leisure fits into those cultures. We are especially interested in how Native Americans view outdoor recreation and the outdoor resources where that recreation may take place. One author is Metis, a recognized Canadian First Nation, and has a background in Native American Studies and leisure behavior. The other author is non-Native American and has a number of years of experience studying outdoor recreation behavior and resources. When we tried to begin a research study on Native American outdoor recreation behaviors and values we found that the leisure literature had very little to offer us on this topic. Since little leisure research has been done regarding Native Americans, a review of the leisure and leisure-related research appears to be warranted, along with a look to the future regarding research directions and methods that will be appropriate. The purpose of this article is to present an evaluative review of the literature pertaining to leisure and Native American populations. Though leisure researchers have, in recent years, shown a growing interest in crosscultural leisure research (Allison, 1988; Ewert, Chavez, & Magill, 1993), they have paid little attention to Native American communities. Because of this lack of research in the leisure literature, much of this article will draw from the literature of other disciplines, and will seek to examine Native American leisure-related beliefs and behaviors through related concepts such as play, games and parks, rather than adopting the more conventional conceptualizations of leisure and recreation used in the field. Little empirical research was found even in related literatures, therefore much of the work cited is analysis based on secondary sources, case studies, and anecdotal reports based on the experiences of the writers. …

American Indians, place meanings and the Old/New West.

The American West includes millions of acres of national parks, forests and other protected lands. These landscapes are often associated with sense of place and place meanings for those who live there and for people who go there for recreation and tourism. American Indian place meanings regarding national parks and protected areas are often very different from those of White Americans. This is due to differing interpretations of history, the symbolism of parks, and world views. These differences often result in conflict regarding management of recreation and tourism resources on and near Indian lands. The increased significance and presence of Indian tribes in the West make it necessary for scholars and practitioners in recreation, parks and tourism to have a deeper understanding of American Indians and their issues.

The leisure preferences, problems, and needs of the elderly.

ABSTRACTPublic planning agencies have little data available concerning the leisure needs of the elderly population. The current study of 540 elderly persons shows a great deal of concentration in t...

Native American land ethics: Implications for natural resource management

Native American land ethics are not well understood by many governmental natural resource managers. This article presents the results of interviews with selected tribal elders, tribal land managers, and tribal content experts concerning traditional beliefs and values forming a land ethic and how these influence tribal land management practices. The Native American land ethic that emerged from this study includes four belief areas: “All Is Sacred”; (there is no separation between the secular and the spiritual); “Right Action”; (individual choice of action is based on the belief system); “All Is Interrelated”; (everything is interconnected in an egalitarian system); and “Mother Earth”; (the Earth is the physical and spiritual mother of creation). Traditional Native American beliefs concerning the environment appear to spring from a spiritual context rather than the scientific‐utilitarian context more prevalent in the dominant Euro‐American culture.

Cross-Cultural Claims on Devils Tower National Monument: A Case Study

A dispute between American Indians and rock climbers over the appropriate use of Devils Tower National Monument in northeast Wyoming reflects fundamental differences in culture and world view. The United States Department of the Interior (USDI) National Park Services (NPS) attempt to resolve this dispute with a voluntary ban on climbing during the month of June in deference to American Indian cultural and religious practices, and subsequent court rulings upholding the NPS policy, illustrate a widening circle of respect for, and accommodation of, divergent interpretations of humankinds relationship with the natural world.

Conducting research with communities of color

This article presents the major challenges facing those who want to address the issues of race and ethnicity through research with communities of color; general methodological recommendations appropriate to many communities of color; and, specific research method recommendations for African American, American Indian, and Hispanic American communities.This article presents the major challenges facing those who want to address the issues of race and ethnicity through research with communities of color; general methodological recommendations appropriate to many communities of color; and, specific research method recommendations for African American, American Indian, and Hispanic American communities.

Outcomes—Consequences —Values of an Integrated Wilderness Adventure Program

The purpose of this research was to use means-end analysis to develop a better understanding of the outcomes for participants in n integrated adven hire program that includes persons with and without disabilities. The research specifically examined the linkages between the means (the service) and the ends (the consequences and values important to the individ ual). The research also explored differences in the means-end linkages for those with and without a physi cal disability. The research focused on Wilderness Inquiry, a non-profit organization that sponsors integrat ed wilderness adventure trip programs for adults and families. These trips include people with and without disabilities. Originally developed to understand con sumers’ feelings about products or services, means-end theory has been used to better understand consumers’ feelings about products or services, means-end theory has been used to better understand decision-making behavior for marketing purposes. The research report here examines participation rather than decision-mak ing and is unique in that it is among the fIrst application to involve an integrated adventure program. A total of 198 participants from Wilderness Inquiry trips complet ed a 15-minute questionnaire as part of the post trip evaluation during the summer ~0O1. Respondents were asked to identify key outcomes they obtained from the trip and then asked why each outcome was important to them. This series of questioning is important to get par ticipants to higher-level outcomes and is referred to as “laddering.” Participants were of various abilities, ages, backgrounds and gender. The data were analyzed and hierarchical value maps (HVM), were created using the links between the outcomes that participants listed on their questionnaire. The predominant trip attributes that contributed to par ticipant outcomes were interactions, wilderness experi ence, canoeing, and the trip overall. The predominant consequences linked to these attributes included rela tionships with others, awareness, and nature apprecia tion. ‘Thansference, self-awareness/improvement/fulfill ment, personal goal, warm relationships with others, and per~onaI/spiriWal value were the predominant val ues. The strongest links were between teamwork and relationships with others. Other strong links were between new opportunities that lead to personal goals, and awareness leading to fun and enjoyment of life. Looking at people with disabilities (n = 64) versus peo ple without disabilities (n = 126), there area a few dif ferences and similarities. Interactions and wilderness experiences are important attributes for all participants on these trips. Awareness, relationships with others, and nature appreciation are the strongest consequences, and values are similar as well. For participants without dis abilities, new opportunities were a strong link with per sonal goals, whereas for participants with disabilities, new opportunities were not important. For participants with disabilities, there was link between awareness of disabilities to achievement to a sense of accomplish ment. For persons with disabilities, awareness of abili ties is linked to transference.

Use of national forests by Salish-Kootenai Tribal members: traditional recreation and a legacy of cultural values.

Abstract This study focused on the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flat‐head Reservation in Montana. Its purpose was three‐fold: (a) to understand the outdoor recreation activities of the Salish‐Kootenai Tribal members in surrounding national forests, (b) to clarify the significance of these outdoor activities to Salish‐Kootenai Tribal members, and (c) to make recommendations to managers regarding how changes occurring on national forests may impact Tribal members’ use of these lands. The study highlights the historical and contemporary challenges American Indians face regarding their use of lands near their reservations. Interviews were conducted with 60 Salish‐Kootenai Tribal members. Results indicate that Tribal members participate in a number of outdoor activities in national forests, including hunting, fishing, berry and mushroom picking, camping, hiking, and collecting medicinal plants. Their participation in these activities is often negatively impacted by two factors: (a) management operations, and (b) a perception of racist behaviour on the part of both managers and non‐American Indians using national forests. Management recommendations are given to balance the needs of forest visitors while respecting and preserving American Indian culture and values.

Autonomous Student Experiences in Outdoor and Adventure Education

This article explores the current state of knowledge regarding the use of autonomous student experiences (ASE) in outdoor and adventure education (OAE) programs. ASE are defined as components (e.g., solo, final expedition) in which participants have a greater measure of choice and control over the planning, execution, and outcomes of their learning. The article discusses the importance of ASE in experiential education and reviews major findings and supporting evidence in the relevant literature. Outward Bound and the National Outdoor Leadership School are highlighted as OAE programs that incorporate evidence-based research into their course designs. The article concludes with an examination of existing gaps in the knowledge and a discussion of topics for future ASE research.