Leonardo Galetto

Diversity, threats and conservation of native bees in the Neotropics

The Neotropics bee fauna is very rich with 5000 recognised species, including 33 genera (391 species) of Meliponini, but it is estimated to be at least three fold greater in species richness. Deforestation, agriculture intensification and introduction/spread of exotic competing bee species are considered the main threats to most indigenous species, although other less obvious causes can affect the populations of some bee species locally. Efforts to conserve the native bee fauna include better knowledge of bee richness and diversity (standardized surveys, larger bee collections and appropriate identification of bee species) and of their population dynamics, raising of public and policy makers’ awareness, commercial applications of bee products and services such as pollination and preservation of natural habitat.ZusammenfassungDie vorliegende Arbeit soll einen Überblick geben über die Diversität und den Artenreichtum der neotropischen Bienenfauna, die Bedrohungen, denen sie ausgesetzt ist, als auch eine Darstellung der Initiativen und Probleme im Artenschutz der einheimischen Bienen. Die Daten beruhen auf umfassenden Literaturrecherchen. Diese Informationen wurden dann von den Autoren diskutiert und in Form relevanter Punkte inhaltlich zusammengefasst. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass die Neotropis eine artenreiche Bienenfauna aufweist und dass diese sogar unterschätzt wird. Den existierenden 5000 gültigen Artennamen stehen Schätzungen gegenüber, dass diese weniger als ein Drittel der tatsächlich vorkommenden Arten umfassen (Tab. I). Bedrohungen, denen einheimische Bienen der Neotropis ausgesetzt sind, liegen vor allem menschliche Aktivitäten zugrunde, die in drei Kategorien zusammengefasst werden können: Entwaldung, Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft und Einführung fremder Arten. Die Hauptursachen der Entwaldung sind Holzeinschlag, das Sammeln von Feuerholz, die Produktion von Holzkohle und Rodungen zur Schaffung von landwirtschaftlichen und Weideflächen. Der Amazonasregenwald, Mexiko und Zentralamerika weisen die höchsten Entwaldungsraten in Amerika auf, aber auch in den Chaco-Wälder der argentinischen und kolumbianischen Anden schreitet die Entwaldung fort (Tab. II). Die Ausbreitung und Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft wird vielfach als die wichtigste Bedrohung für Bienenarten angesehen. Sie führt zu einer Verringerung der Artendiversität bei Tieren und Pflanzen, verringert das Angebot an Nistmöglichkeiten und Futterquellen, und durch das Ausbringen von Pestiziden und Pflügen der Böden werden sowohl Bienenlarven als auch Adulte getötet. Ironischerweise sind die meisten Kulturpflanzen mehr oder weniger stark auf die Präsenz biotischer Bestäuber angewiesen, wobei die Bienen die wichtigste Gruppe darstellen. Auch die Einführung fremder Bienenarten und anderer exotischer Organismen, die mit der lokalen Bienenfauna in Wechselwirkung treten, kann die einheimische Bienenfauna beeinträchtigen. Die Einführung von Apis mellifera in die Neue Welt zur Steigerung der Honigproduktion und die von exotischen Hummelarten für Bestäubungszwecke hat zu Bedenken Anlass gegeben über die Konkurrenz mit einheimischen Bienen um Futter- und Nistmöglichkeiten, sowie zur Ausbreitung von Krankheiten und Parasiten und zur Hybridisierung mit einheimischen Hummmelarten. Anderen Bedrohungen liegen Trockenzeiten, Überschwemmungen, grossflächige Buschbrände, Hurrikane und die Kontaminierung der Ökosysteme mit Schwermetallen zugrunde. Die Hauptprobleme, denen sich Initiativen zum Artenschutz einheimischer Bienen gegenübersehen, sind fehlende Kenntnisse über Artenreichtum, Diversität, Taxonomie, Populationsdynamik und den Einfluss menschlicher Aktivitäten auf die meisten Bienenarten. Um zu besseren Kenntnissen über Artenreichtum, Diversität und Populationsdynamik zu kommen, ist Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Aufklärung bei Politikverantwortlichen erforderlich. Hierin können die Kommerzialisierung von Bienenprodukten, sowie Aufklärung über die Bedeutung von Bestäubern und der Schutz natürlicher Habitate eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Bestäuberinitiativen erweisen sich hierbei als wichtige Werkzeuge, um Politiker, die Öffenlichkeit und Forscher in koordinierter Weise zusammenzubringen, Wissen über wichtige Fragen zu schaffen und insbesondere die negativen Auswirkungen bienenbedrohender Aktivitäten in Lateinamerika abzumildern.

Effects of forest fragmentation on male and female reproductive success in Cestrum parqui (Solanaceae)

In this paper we evaluate the effects of forest fragmentation on male (pollen removal, pollen load, and pollen tubes) and female reproductive success (fruit- and seed-set) of Cestrum parqui, a self-incompatible, pollination-specialist plant species. We also measure focal individual conspecific density to account for possible density-related effects that could influence the response variables. We calculate an index which incorporates male and female fitness and gives an integrated assessment of overall reproductive success. Forest fragmentation strongly affected the amount of pollen grains on stigmas and number of pollen tubes as well as seed-set, decreasing from continuous forest to small forest fragments, whereas focal individual conspecific density failed to explain any of the variability for the studied variables. Declines in overall reproductive success (i.e. male and female) in small forest fragments are ascribed to decreases in both the quality and quantity of pollination. Self-incompatibility coupled with a specialist pollination system may be particularly important traits determining the negative fragmentation effects observed in C. parqui. Logarithmic regression models described the behaviour of the variables along the fragmentation size gradient, allowing us to detect a threshold below which the effects of fragmentation begin to negatively affect reproductive success in C. parqui. Our results emphasize the importance of evaluating both components of the total plant fitness, as well as including simultaneously several aspects of pollination and reproduction processes when assessing the effects of forest fragmentation on plant reproductive success.

Nectary structure and nectar characteristics in someBignoniaceae

The nectary structure and chemical nectar composition of 15 species belonging to 12 genera ofBignoniaceae are analyzed. All taxa bear a conspicuous nuptial nectary surrounding the ovary base. The secretory tissue is mostly supplied by phloem branches. The stomata are located in the middle and upper part of the nectary epidermis with an homogeneous distribution. The nuptial nectary is proportionally large in relation to the ovary (15–30%), disregarding the nectary volume. Most species have extranuptial nectaries in both inner and outer surfaces of the calyx. Both kinds of nectaries lack a vascular tissue that straightly supplies them. Nuptial nectar concentration (wt/wt) ranges from 19 to 68%. Sugars and amino acids are found in all species. Half of the species have hexose predominant nectars, the remaining sucrose predominant. Phenols are detected in only three species, whereas reducing acids exclusively inTecoma stans. Alkaloids and lipids were never detected. Extranuptial nectar chemical composition is analyzed in two species:Dolichandra cynanchoides andPodranea ricasoliana. Bees constitute the main flower visitors of the species studied whereas hummingbirds were seen visiting three species. A correlation analysis is performed with the data obtained. There are a few significant correlations which indicate a parallel increase of three parameters: the longer the flower length, the more voluminous the nectary and the higher stomata number, independently of the floral biotype. Phenograms are obtained using 24 floral characters including nectary and nectar data. The clusters obtained do not reflect taxonomic relationships but are useful in the understanding of animal-plant interactions when the flower biotype is considered.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLORAL NECTAR COMPOSITION AND VISITORS IN LYCIUM (SOLANACEAE) FROM ARGENTINA AND CHILE : WHAT DOES IT REFLECT ?

Summary We evaluated the relationship between floral nectar composition, flower visitors, and floral form for Lycium species from Argentina and Chile. Our goal was to determine whether nectar chemical composition is correlated with floral form and pollinators or whether it is a conservative character. We analysed 54 populations from 14 species and six varieties. This sample is representative of the floral variation in the genus, and the taxa come from its main area of diversification. The nectar of all the taxa contains both amino acids and sugars. The mean nectar sugar concentration is high: 48.4% ± 19.8. There is a remarkable constancy in the nectar sugar ratio among the taxa: 90% of them present a hexose dominant one, i.e. nectar has 90% fructose and glucose. Visitors include Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera; the most common family of each order is Anthophoridae, Syrphidae, and Nymphalidae, respectively. Only one species is visited by hummingbirds. Most of the plant taxa (68.4%) are visited by members of two or three insect orders. No patterns have been detected between the kinds of visitors and the flower morphology. The homogeneity of nectar sugar composition in contrast to the variety of visitors and flower forms indicates that there is no correlation between the nectar sugar ratio and floral form or pollinators. This suggests that nectar ratio is a conservative character in Lycium .

Floral nectar chemical composition of some species from Patagonia. II

Abstract Floral nectar chemical compositions of 28 species native to Argentinian Patagonia are reported. Most data obtained are new reports at the generic and/or the specific level. Nectars of these species show high mean concentrations (42.35±15.56; %, wt/total wt of solution). Most of the species are hexose dominant (68%) and the remaining are sucrose rich (11%) or sucrose dominant (21%). The hexose ratio shows that in most species (71%) glucose predominates over fructose. The nectars of all species have amino acids. In 32% of them, lipids were detected, whereas phenols were present in around 60%. Most of the species are entomophilous, mainly melittophilous and psychophilous. These data together with those of our previous report include a total of 57 species from 19 families, and suggest three trends in the nectar sugar traits of Patagonian plants, regardless of their systematic relationship or floral syndrome: high concentration, hexose dominance, and predominance of glucose. These results suggest that nectar characteristics are not always as similar for plants pollinated by the same animal taxa as formerly thought.

Nectar, nectaries, flower visitors, and breeding system in five terrestrial Orchidaceae from central Argentina

Floral nectar sugar composition, nectary anatomy, and visitors are studied in five Argentine Orchidaceae, from 18 populations. Hand-pollinations were performed to evaluate their breeding system. We found two different types of perigonal nectaries located either in the spur (Habenaria gouriieana, H. hieronymi, Habenariinae), or in the basal lateral parts of the labellum (Beadlea dutraei, Pelexia bonariensis, Stenorrhynchos orchioides, Spiranthinae). The spur ofHabenaria is a nonvascularised and nonstructural nectary. The inner epidermis bears one-celled long papillae. In bud stage, the papillae are filled with starch grains, but when the flower opens and nectar secretion starts, they show no starch grains. This fact may indicate that starch is a source for some of the secreted nectar. In the remainder genera, the lateral basal parts of the labellum are secretory. The two glands are located in the adaxial basal lateral faces of the labellum. These nectaries are structural and nonvascularised.Stenorrhynchos produces abundant, concentrated nectar (40–50%).Habenaria gourlieana accumulates copious nectar in a lower concentration (<20%), whereas the other species produce small quantities of concentrated nectar (ca. 50%). Three of the studied species have sucrose predominant nectar (Beadlea dutrael, Habenaria gourlieana, andPelexia bonariensis) whileH. hieronymi, Stenorrhynchos orchioides have hexose predominant ones. Nectar removal and/or pollination induce flower senescence.H. gouriieana is visited by sphingids,S. orchioides by hummingbirds, andB. dutrael by bees. For the two other species we did not record flower visitors.Pelexia bonariensis, B. dutrael, andS. orchiodes are self-compatible species but a pollinator is needed.

Ethnobotanical knowledge in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina): the importance of cultural and biogeographical factors

BackgroundThe possibility to better understand the relationships within the men, the nature and their culture has extreme importance because allows the characterisation of social systems through their particular environmental perception, and provides useful tools for the development of conservation policies.MethodsThe present study was planned to disentangle environmental and cultural factors that are influencing the perception, knowledge and uses of edible and medicinal plants in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina). Interviews an participant observation were conducted in nine rural communities located in three different biogeographical areas. Data about knowledge of medicinal and edible plants and sociocultural variables were obtained. Data were analysed by Principal Components Analysis (PCA).ResultsThe analysis of data confirmed that medicinal species are widely used whereas the knowledge on edible plants is eroding. The PCA showed four groups of communities, defined by several particular combinations of sociocultural and/or natural variables.ConclusionThis comprehensive approach suggests that in general terms the cultural environment has a stronger influence than the natural environment on the use of medicinal and edible plants in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina).

Ant exclusion and reproduction of Croton sarcopetalus (Euphorbiaceae)

Summary A total of 20 insect species were observed on the extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) of Croton sarcopetalus . The most frequent ant species were Zacryptocerus sp., Crematogaster brevispinosa, C. scelerata , and Linepithema humile . Ants continuously patrolled the plants taking extrafloral nectar. Experimental data showed that there were no significant differences in either the degree of herbivory or in the reproductive output between control stems (with ants) and treated ones (without ants). We found no significant evidence of protection by ants mediated by EFNs in C. sarcopetalus . It is possible that the plant has other mechanisms than ant protection to prevent herbivore damage (e.g., hairs, latex, chemical defense). As this species occupies the southernmost distribution for the genus, the presence of EFNs in this species may be the remnant of a mutualistic interaction with the ants in tropical regions, where the abundance and diversity of ants and herbivores are comparatively higher. To draw accurate patterns in the genus Croton , further investigations in other species from tropical regions of South America are needed.

Flower structure and nectar chemical composition in three Argentine Apocynaceae

Summary Flower structure and nectar composition were investigated in Mandevilla laxa (R uiz et P av .) W oodson , M. pentlandiana (A. DC.) WOODSON, and Macrosiphonia petraea (S t . H il .) K. S chum . A voluminous floral nectary surrounds the ovary. It is continuous and adnate to the floral receptacle, lobed in its upper portion, and supplied by phoem and xylem bundles originating from branches of the axial vascular ring. The data presented sustain the receptacular nature of the nectary but disagree with previous reports advocating that nectaries of Apocynaceae should be interpreted as carpellodes. Squamellae were found at the base of the internal surface of the calyx. All species have a sucrose dominant nectar. Phenols were found only in one sample of Mandevilla laxa while reducing acids, lipids, and alkaloids were never detected. Macrosiphonia petraea and M. laxa are visited by sphingids while M. pentlandiana is visited by bumblebees. The flower structure is highly elaborated allowing an extremely precise pollination mechanism. The floral architecture precludes self-pollen to reach the receptive stigmatic surface. The visitor arrives to the flower and introduces its proboscis through one of the five entries delimited by the filaments and the corolla to reach the nectar. Above each entry there is a space delimited by two thecae. If the pollinator has pollen on the proboscis, it may place pollen near the receptive stigmatic surface when withdrawing its proboscis. After this, the proboscis is guided to the space between two thecae touching first the sticky drop and then the pollen which is carried by the pollinator to another flower. Crossing studies and extended field observations are required to confirm the pollinators and its role on the reproductive biology of these species.

The composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in the roots of a ruderal forb is not related to the forest fragmentation process.

Land-use changes and forest fragmentation have strong impact on biodiversity. However, little is known about the influence of new landscape configurations on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) community composition. We used 454 pyrosequencing to assess AMF diversity in plant roots from a fragmented forest. We detected 59 virtual taxa (VT; phylogenetically defined operational taxonomic units) of AMF - including 10 new VT - in the roots of Euphorbia acerensis. AMF communities were mainly composed of members of family Glomeraceae and were similar throughout the fragmented landscape, despite variation in forest fragment size (i.e. small, medium and large) and isolation (i.e. varying pairwise distances). AMF communities in forest fragments were phylogenetically clustered compared with the global, but not regional and local AMF taxon pools. This indicates that non-random community assembly processes possibly related to dispersal limitation at a large scale, rather than habitat filtering or biotic interactions, may be important in structuring the AMF communities. In this system, forest fragmentation did not appear to influence AMF community composition in the roots of the ruderal plant. Whether this is true for AMF communities in soil and the roots of other ecological groups of host plants or in other habitats deserves further study.