Li Qian

Interleukin-10 Protects Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neurotoxicity in Primary Midbrain Cultures by Inhibiting the Function of NADPH Oxidase

The role of anti-inflammatory cytokines in Parkinsons disease is not completely understood. In this study, using mesencephalic neuron-glia cultures, we report that both pretreatment and post-treatment of rat mesencephalic neuron-glia cultures with interleukin (IL)-10, a natural immune modulator, reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced DA neurotoxicity. The main purpose of this study was to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying IL-10-elicited neuroprotection. IL-10 significantly inhibited LPS-induced production of tumor necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide, and extracellular superoxide in microglia cells. In addition, using reconstituted neuron and glia cell cultures, IL-10 was shown to be neuroprotective only in the presence of microglia. More importantly, IL-10 failed to protect DA neurons in cultures from mice lacking NADPH oxidase (PHOX), a key enzyme for extracellular superoxide production in immune cells, suggesting the critical role of PHOX in IL-10 neuroprotection. This conclusion was further supported by the finding that IL-10 inhibited LPS-induced translocation of the cytosolic subunit of NADPH oxidase p47phox to the membrane. When the Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) 1 signaling pathway was blocked, IL-10 failed to attenuate LPS-induced superoxide production, indicating that the JAK1 signaling cascade mediates the inhibitory effect of IL-10. Together, our results suggest that IL-10 inhibits LPS-induced DA neurotoxicity through the inhibition of PHOX activity in a JAK1-dependent mechanism.

Macrophage antigen complex-1 mediates reactive microgliosis and progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the MPTP model of Parkinson's disease.

Neuronal death is known to trigger reactive microgliosis. However, little is known regarding the manner by which microglia are activated by injured neurons and how microgliosis participates in neurodegeneration. In this study we delineate the critical role of macrophage Ag complex-1 (MAC1), a member of the β2 integrin family, in mediating reactive microgliosis and promoting dopaminergic (DAergic) neurodegeneration in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) model of Parkinson’s disease. MAC1 deficiency greatly attenuated the DAergic neurodegeneration induced by MPTP or 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridium iodide (MPP+) exposure both in vivo and in vitro, respectively. Reconstituted experiments created by adding microglia from MAC1−/− or MAC1+/+ mice back to MAC1+/+ neuron-enriched cultures showed that microglia with functional MAC1 expression was mandatory for microglia-enhanced neurotoxicity. Both in vivo and in vitro morphological and Western blot studies demonstrated that MPTP/MPP+ produced less microglia activation in MAC1−/− mice than MAC1+/+ mice. Further mechanistic studies revealed that a MPP+-mediated increase in superoxide production was reduced in MAC1−/− neuron-glia cultures compared with MAC1+/+ cultures. The stunted production of superoxide in MAC1−/− microglia is likely linked to the lack of translocation of the cytosolic NADPH oxidase (PHOX) subunit (p47phox) to the membrane. In addition, the production of PGE2 markedly decreased in neuron plus MAC1−/− microglia cocultures vs neuron plus MAC1+/+ microglia cocultures. Taken together, these results demonstrate that MAC1 plays a critical role in MPTP/MPP+-induced reactive microgliosis and further support the hypothesis that reactive microgliosis is an essential step in the self-perpetuating cycle leading to progressive DAergic neurodegeneration observed in Parkinson’s disease.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 negatively regulates anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 for lipopolysaccharide-induced iNOS/NO biosynthesis and RANTES production in microglial cells.

The inflammatory effects of glycogen synthase kinase‐3 (GSK‐3) have been identified; however, the potential mechanism is still controversial. In this study, we investigated the effects of GSK‐3‐mediated interleukin‐10 (IL‐10) inhibition on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐induced inflammation. Treatment with GSK‐3 inhibitor significantly blocked LPS‐induced nitric oxide (NO) production as well as inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression in BV2 murine microglial cells and primary rat microglia‐enriched cultures. Using an antibody array and enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay, we found that GSK‐3‐inhibitor treatment blocked LPS‐induced upregulation of regulated on activation normal T‐cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) and increased IL‐10 expression. The time kinetics and dose–response relations were confirmed. Reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction showed changes on the messenger RNA level as well. Inhibiting GSK‐3 using short‐interference RNA, and transfecting cells with dominant‐negative GSK‐3β, blocked LPS‐elicited NO and RANTES expression but increased IL‐10 expression. In contrast, GSK‐3β overexpression upregulated NO and RANTES but downregulated IL‐10 in LPS‐stimulated cells. Treating cells with anti‐IL‐10 neutralizing antibodies to prevent GSK‐3 from downregulating NO and RANTES showed that the anti‐inflammatory effects are, at least in part, IL‐10‐dependent. The involvement of Akt, extracellular signal‐regulated kinase, p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase and nuclear factor‐κB that positively regulated IL‐10 was demonstrated. Furthermore, inhibiting GSK‐3 increased the nuclear translocation of transcription factors, that all important for IL‐10 expression, including CCAAT/enhancer‐binding protein beat (C/EBPβ), C/EBPδ, cAMP response binding element protein and NF‐κB. Taken together, these findings reveal that LPS induces iNOS/NO biosynthesis and RANTES production through a mechanism involving GSK‐3‐mediated IL‐10 downregulation.

Inhibition of IκB Kinase-β Protects Dopamine Neurons Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neurotoxicity

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by a selective loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Although current therapy can control symptoms of this disorder, there is no effective therapy available to halt its progression. Recently, neuroinflammation has been recognized as an important contributor to the pathogenesis of PD, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays a key role in regulating neuroinflammation. Hence, the modulation of NF-κB pathway may have therapeutic potential for PD. Activation of NF-κB depends on the phosphorylation of its inhibitor, IκB, by the specific IκB kinase (IKK) subunit IKK-β. Compound A (7-[2-(cyclopropylmethoxy)-6-hydroxyphenyl]-5-[(3S)-3-piperidinyl]-1, 4-dihydro-2H-pyrido[2,3-d][1,3]oxazin-2-one hydrochloride), a potent and selective inhibitor of IKK-β, has recently been reported to provide cardioprotection through specific suppression of NF-κB signaling. The present study, for the first time, elucidates neuroprotective effects of compound A. Daily subcutaneous injection of compound A (1 mg/kg) for 7 days inhibited the activation of microglia induced by nigral stereotaxic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and significantly attenuated LPS-induced loss of DA neurons in the SN. In vitro mechanistic studies revealed that neuroprotective effects of compound A were mediated by 1) suppressing the activity of microglial NADPH oxidase and decreasing the production of reactive oxygen species, and 2) inhibiting NF-κB-mediated gene transcription of various proinflammatory mediators in microglia via IKK-β suppression. These findings indicate that compound A afforded potent neuroprotection against LPS-induced neurodegeneration through selective inhibition of NF-κB activation and may be of potential benefit in the treatment of PD.

Clozapine protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammation-induced damage by inhibiting microglial overactivation

Increasing evidence suggests a possible involvement of neuroinflammation in some psychiatric disorders, and also pharmacological reports indicate that anti-inflammatory effects are associated with therapeutic actions of psychoactive drugs, such as anti-depressants and antipsychotics. The purpose of this study was to explore whether clozapine, a widely used antipsychotic drugs, displays anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Using primary cortical and mesencephalic neuron-glia cultures, we found that clozapine was protective against inflammation-related neurodegeneration induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Pretreatment of cortical or mesencephalic neuron–glia cultures with clozapine (0.1 or 1xa0μM) for 24xa0h attenuated LPS-induced neurotoxicity. Clozapine also protected neurons against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium+ (MPP+)-induced neurotoxicity, but only in cultures containing microglia, indicating an indispensable role of microglia in clozapine-afforded neuroprotection. Further observation revealed attenuated LPS-induced microglial activation in primary neuron-glia cultures and in HAPI microglial cell line with clozapine pretreatment. Clozapine ameliorated the production of microglia-derived superoxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as the production of nitric oxide and TNF-α following LPS. In addition, the protective effect of clozapine was not observed in neuron-glia cultures from mice lacking functional NADPH oxidase (PHOX), a key enzyme for superoxide production in immune cells. Further mechanistic studies demonstrated that clozapine pretreatment inhibited LPS-induced translocation of cytosolic subunit p47phox to the membrane in microglia, which was most likely through inhibiting the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. Taken together, this study demonstrates that clozapine exerts neuroprotective effect via the attenuation of microglia activation through inhibition of PHOX-generated ROS production and suggests potential use of antipsychotic drugs for neuroprotection.

Endotoxin induces a delayed loss of TH-IR neurons in substantia nigra and motor behavioral deficits

We have previously reported that a single injection of endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 5mg/kg, i.p.), causes a delayed and progressive loss of TH-IR neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) in C57BL/six male mice. In this study, we determined sex differences and behavioral deficits accompanying the loss of TH-IR neurons in response to peripheral LPS injection. A single injection of LPS (5mg/kg, i.p.) failed to produce any loss of TH-IR neurons in the SN of female mice over a 12-month period. To determine if multiple-injections were required, female mice received five injections of LPS (5mg/kg, i.p.) at either weekly or monthly intervals. Behavioral motor ability and TH-IR neuronal loss were determined after the first injection of LPS. We found significant differences in both behavioral activities and neuronal loss between these two injection paradigms. Between 7 and 20 months after the first injection of LPS, progressive behavioral changes, measured by rotor-rod and open-field activities, and neuronal loss in SN were observed in monthly injected, but not in weekly injected mice. In addition, reduced rotor-rod ability in monthly injected mice were restored following treatment of l-dopa/carbidopa (30 mg/3mg/kg), i.p.). Approximately 40 and 50% loss of TH-IR neurons at 9 and 20 months, respectively, was observed after exposure to LPS, suggesting that the behavioral deficit is related to loss of dopamine function in the nigra-striatal pathway. More intense immuno-staining of alpha-synuclein and inflammatory markers were detected in brain sections exposed to LPS. In conclusion, these results show that multi-LPS monthly injections can induce a delayed and progressive loss of TH-IR neurons and motor deficits which resemble the progressive nature of Parkinsons disease. Further, the present study reveals a clear sex difference: female mice are more resistant to LPS than male mice. Repeated monthly LPS injections are required to cause both motor behavioral deficits and DA neuronal loss in female mice.

Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, protects dopaminergic neurons from neurotoxin-induced damage.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Prevention or disease‐modifying therapies are critical for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease and Huntingtons disease. However, no such intervention is currently available. Growing evidence has demonstrated that administration of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors ameliorates a wide range of neurologic and psychiatric disorders in experimental models. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) was the first HDAC inhibitor approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the sole use of cancer therapy. The purpose of this study was to explore the potential new indications of SAHA for therapy of neurodegenerative diseases in in vitro Parkinsons disease models.

Post-treatment with an ultra-low dose of NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium attenuates disease progression in multiple Parkinson's disease models.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, a key superoxide-producing enzyme, plays a critical role in microglia-mediated chronic neuroinflammation and subsequent progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration in Parkinsons disease. Although nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase-targeting anti-inflammatory therapy for Parkinsons disease has been proposed, its application in translational research remains limited. The aim of this study was to obtain preclinical evidence supporting this therapeutic strategy by testing the efficacy of an ultra-low dose of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium in both endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide)- and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated mice using post-treatment regimens. Our data revealed that post-treatment with diphenyleneiodonium significantly attenuated progressive dopaminergic degeneration and improved rotarod activity. Remarkably, post-treatment with diphenyleneiodonium 10 months after lipopolysaccharide injection when mice had 30% loss of nigral dopaminergic neurons, showed high efficacy in protecting the remaining neuronal population and restoring motor function. Diphenyleneiodonium-elicited neuroprotection was associated with the inhibition of microglial activation, a reduction in the expression of proinflammatory factors and an attenuation of α-synuclein aggregation. A pathophysiological evaluation of diphenyleneiodonium-treated mice, including assessment of body weight, organs health, and neuronal counts, revealed no overt signs of toxicity. In summary, infusion of ultra-low dose diphenyleneiodonium potently reduced microglia-mediated chronic neuroinflammation by selectively inhibiting nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and halted the progression of neurodegeneration in mouse models of Parkinsons disease. The robust neuroprotective effects and lack of apparent toxic side effects suggest that diphenyleneiodonium at ultra-low dose may be a promising candidate for future clinical trials in Parkinsons disease patients.

Substance P Exacerbates Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration through Neurokinin-1 Receptor-Independent Activation of Microglial NADPH Oxidase

Although dysregulated substance P (SP) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of Parkinsons disease (PD), how SP affects the survival of dopaminergic neurons remains unclear. Here, we found that mice lacking endogenous SP (TAC1−/−), but not those deficient in the SP receptor (neurokinin-1 receptor, NK1R), were more resistant to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced nigral dopaminergic neurodegeneration than wild-type controls, suggesting a NK1R-independent toxic action of SP. In vitro dose–response studies revealed that exogenous SP enhanced LPS- and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration in a bimodal manner, peaking at submicromolar and subpicomolar concentrations, but was substantially less effective at intermediate concentrations. Mechanistically, the actions of submicromolar levels of SP were NK1R-dependent, whereas subpicomolar SP-elicited actions required microglial NADPH oxidase (NOX2), the key superoxide-producing enzyme, but not NK1R. Subpicomolar concentrations of SP activated NOX2 by binding to the catalytic subunit gp91phox and inducing membrane translocation of the cytosolic subunits p47phox and p67phox. The importance of NOX2 was further corroborated by showing that inhibition or disruption of NOX2 blocked subpicomolar SP-exacerbated neurotoxicity. Together, our findings revealed a critical role of microglial NOX2 in mediating the neuroinflammatory and dopaminergic neurodegenerative effects of SP, which may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of PD.

Transcriptional Factor NF-κB as a Target for Therapy in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative condition characterized by chronic inflammation. Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) is a family of inducible transcription factors that are expressed in a wide variety of cells and tissues, including microglia, astrocytes, and neurons, and the classical NF-κB pathway plays a key role in the activation and regulation of inflammatory mediator production during inflammation. Activation of the classical NF-κB pathway is mediated through the activity of the IKK kinase complex, which consists of a heterotrimer of IKKα, IKKβ, and IKKγ subunits. Targeting NF-κB has been proposed as an approach to the treatment of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, and the use of inhibitors specific for either IKKβ or IKKγ has now been found to inhibit neurodegeneration of TH+ DA-producing neurons in murine and primate models of Parkinsons disease. These studies suggest that targeting the classical pathway of NF-κB through the inhibition of the IKK complex can serve as a useful therapeutic approach to the treatment of PD.