Linda Tsung

Minority languages, education and communities in China

List of Maps, Figures and Tables Foreword: J.Cleverley Preface Series Editors Preface Abbreviations Introduction Profile Minorities in the Past: Historical Experience New Policies and Practice under Communism Minority Language Issues under the Open Door Policies and Practice: A Case Study in Yunnan Policies and Practice: A Case Study in Xinjiang Language Policies and Prospects in Hong Kong Progress, Challenges and Prospects Appendices Notes Bibliography Index

Mother tongue and bilingual minority education in China

Abstract Mother tongue education in separate schools has been in the norm for several of Chinas large minorities since 1949. In recent years, however, the shift in minority parental demand, media focus on low educational outcomes of mother tongue education combined with government concerns about separatism have led to the development of mixed schools for Chinese and minority students. In Chinas Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) the government plans to merge all minority mother tongue schools with Chinese schools by the end of 2008.This paper explores the reasons for this policy change and examines whether the mixed schools will address the unsatisfactory educational outcomes for minority students. It draws on data of case studies of two schools in XUAR, a rural minority primary school and an urban mixed minority/Chinese school. The study found mixed schooling does not address the disparity in educational outcomes. Minority ethnic children in both schools have insufficient access to adequate education in their mother tongue, in the national language as well as in the third language, English. It questions whether either school provides genuine bilingual education but provides an example of how bilingual education in one of the schools can address issues of educational outcomes.

What accounts for the underachievement of South Asians in Hong Kong? The voices of Pakistani and Nepalese parents

Background: The research literature linking childrens educational outcomes with levels of parental involvement has in many instances resulted in the location of disadvantage being placed on lack of parental involvement, something that has been the case with South Asian parents in Hong Kong (Au, K., Multicultural issues and literacy achievement, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, 2006; Jeynes, W.H., A meta-analysis – The effects of parental involvement on minority childrens academic achievement, Education and Urban Society 35: 202–218, 2003; Hau, K.T., Tracking the adaptation and development of non-Chinese speaking children (NCS) in mainstream schools, Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_7065/exe_summary%20eng.pdf, 2008; Tsung, L., Zhang, Q., and Cruickshank, K., Access to majority language and educational outcomes: South Asian background students in postcolonial Hong Kong, Diaspora, Indigenous and Minority Education 4, 1–16, 2010). Purpose: This small-scale research study examines the educational involvement of Pakistani and Nepalese parents, and explores the difficulties and challenges South Asians face to succeed in school. Design and methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with 10 South Asian parents (five Nepalese parents and five Pakistani parents). Interviews were semi-structured and consisted of open-ended questions about parents’ educational aspirations, ability in tutoring children with homework, and arrangement of home-learning activities. Transcribed interviews were subjected to content and thematic analysis. Results and discussion: The findings indicate that South Asian parents, despite high aspirations for the education of their children, feel that they lack the linguistic and cultural capital valued by the mainstream society in Hong Kong. This prevents effective involvement in the education of the children. Conclusion: Understanding the perspectives of the parents offers insights into ways in which access to educational outcomes can be denied in school contexts. It is suggested that there needs to be a greater focus on how inclusion/exclusion operates in school contexts in Hong Kong.

Access to Majority Language and Educational Outcomes: South Asian Background Students in Postcolonial Hong Kong.

This study examines the extent to which South Asian students in Hong Kong are gaining fluency in Chinese and the impact of this on their educational outcomes in the postcolonial context of an official shift to a trilingual (Cantonese, English, and Putonghua) and biliterate (Chinese and English) society. It focuses on the teaching and learning of Chinese in secondary schools “designated” for minority background students. Data are drawn from student language proficiency testing and teacher interviews. The study found low proficiency in Chinese due, in part, to teaching methodologies based on approaches to learning Chinese as a first language. There was evidence of inadequate teacher preparation, inappropriate curriculum, structural issues, and a cycle of low student motivation and performance. The study concludes that educational outcomes for these students will not improve without a seismic shift in policy thinking and improvement of educational provision for minority students.

Unlocking the racialized and gendered educational experiences of South Asian females in Hong Kong: the case study of Pakistani girls

Educating South Asians with different language and cultural backgrounds and integrating them into mainstream society have been a challenge for the educational system of Hong Kong. This study documents the educational experiences of a group of Pakistani girls in the contexts of home, community, and school in Hong Kong. Using ethnographic methods, data collection is based on interviews evoking their life stories. These stories recount how Pakistani girls attempt to negotiate with traditional customs, religion and mainstream stereotypes and to construct racialized and gendered schooling experiences. This study highlights the importance of mainstream engagement in regard to critical learning about cultural and linguistic diversity. It is claimed that minorities have an active role as agents in social transformation and change in achieving racial and gender equality, in this case for the most disadvantaged minority females, within the asymmetrical power relationships between local Chinese and South Asian minorities in Hong Kong.

Grammaticality Judgment of Chinese and English Sentences by Native Speakers of Alphasyllabary: A Reaction Time Study

A group of 118 sixteen-year-old students of ethnic Indian and Pakistani origin, learning school Chinese, judged on-line the grammaticality of 18 pairs of sentences in Chinese and English. We hypothesized: (a) The students might not perform worse in simple Chinese sentence processing as compared with equivalent English sentences. (b) There would be an overall school effect as proxy for learning experience. (c) Grammatically correct sentences would be processed more efficiently than anomalous ones. MANCOVA (age as covariate) and efficiency indices, by taking into account both accuracy and reaction time, support the hypotheses. The results are discussed in learning form and meaning of school Chinese.

A vanishing language: the case of Xiandao

Abstract This article aims to analyze the social functions and linguistic features of an endangered language: Xiandao, and discuss the major factors that have caused Xiandao to become endangered. The research data is drawn from recent fieldwork conducted in two villages in Jiemao district, Yingjiang County, Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China. Local administrators, teachers, and all Xiandao families were interviewed. In addition, descriptive linguistic studies were conducted into the grammar, text, and vocabulary glossary of Xiandao. The findings show that most Xiandao people speak three languages: Xiandao, Jingpo and Chinese, but the younger generation speak better Jingpo or Chinese than Xiandao. The Xiandao people live intermingled with and intermarry with the Jingpo and Han Chinese people and are strongly influenced by Jingpo culture and customs and their participation in the Christian religion through the Jingpo language. This close contact with other people has resulted in a language shift to the use of the Jingpo and Chinese languages for much of their daily communication. Xiandao has also adopted many loanwords from the Jingpo and Chinese languages. It is anticipated that, unless effective work is undertaken quickly to revive the language, Xiandao will be replaced by other languages in the near future.

Tibetan bilingual education in Qinghai: government policy vs family language practice

ABSTRACT This paper explores the intersection between government bilingual education policy in schools for Tibetan students and family language practices at home and looks at the implications of such practices. Summaries of empirical data and critical analysis are reported from Qinghai in China. A field study was conducted in Tibetan areas in Qinghai between 2013 and 2016. This fieldwork included school visits, observation and interviews undertaken with teachers, principals and parents. This paper draws from findings based on interviews with Tibetan parents. The results of this research provide insights into the links between bilingual education programs and family members’ decision-making processes. A major conclusion is that there are conflicts between top-down government language policies and bottom-up family language practice. These conflicts arise as Government policies discount the crucial support system parents provide for childrens language learning at home and bilingual education programs in schools. Additionally, socio-economic and educational factors outside the scope of Government Language Education policies may have a significant influence on bilingual education practices, multilingual achievement and the career success of the younger generation of Tibetans.

Maximising Language Socialization and Learning Strategies Through Study Abroad in China

Language socialization is concerned with how second language learners are socialized to be competent members in the target culture through language use and how they socialize to use the target language (Ochs E, Indexicality and socialization. In: Stigler JW, Shweder R, Herdt G (eds) Cultural psychology: essays on comparative human development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 287–308, 1990; Ochs E, Schieffelin BB, Language acquisition and socialization: three developmental stories. In: Shweder RA, LeVine RA (eds) Culture theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 276–320, 1984; Ochs E, Schieffelin BB, The impact of language socialization on grammatical development. In: Fletcher P, MacWhinney B (eds) The handbook of child language. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 73–94, 1995). This paper draws on the framework of language socialization and learning strategies and focuses on Australian adult students learning Chinese as a second language and their process of becoming culturally and linguistically competent members in Chinese society through study abroad in China. The data is collected from 11 students from an Australian University who participated in a 1 year study abroad China program in 2012. Three surveys were undertaken, before the students departed, during the study abroad program, and a final survey after the study abroad program. In-depth interviews were conducted with students after they returned to Australia. The study explores the effectiveness of language socialization and identifies learning strategies affecting students’ success or failure in the in-country program. In particular the study hopes to identify the relationship between language use and the cultural contexts of communication. The findings highlight areas for innovative improvement and maximization of opportunity in future study abroad Chinese language learning programs in Australia.

Fundamental Spoken Chinese/Fundamental Written Chinese

the installation of modern capitalism and the nation-state? Why did the capitalist system demand and necessitate the complete destruction of the intimate relationship between the natural, spiritual and human worlds? These questions are not exclusive to the Ainu’s experiences. They speak to what Marx referred to as the “civilising process” of capitalism in his attempt in Grundrisse to write a new kind of global history. Strong’s Ainu Spirits Singing invites us to confront this acute problematic of modern times, which is far from settled. Ainu Spirits Singing sings through its now unfamiliar voices one of the most astute and compelling songs of history that is at once vanished and living in our times.