Lirije Hyseni

Are interventions to promote healthy eating equally effective for all? Systematic review of socioeconomic inequalities in impact.

Background: Interventions to promote healthy eating make a potentially powerful contribution to the primary prevention of non communicable diseases. It is not known whether healthy eating interventions are equally effective among all sections of the population, nor whether they narrow or widen the health gap between rich and poor. We undertook a systematic review of interventions to promote healthy eating to identify whether impacts differ by socioeconomic position (SEP). Methods: We searched five bibliographic databases using a pre-piloted search strategy. Retrieved articles were screened independently by two reviewers. Healthier diets were defined as the reduced intake of salt, sugar, trans-fats, saturated fat, total fat, or total calories, or increased consumption of fruit, vegetables and wholegrain. Studies were only included if quantitative results were presented by a measure of SEP. Extracted data were categorised with a modified version of the “4Ps” marketing mix, expanded to 6 “Ps”: “Price, Place, Product, Prescriptive, Promotion, and Person”. Results: Our search identified 31,887 articles. Following screening, 36 studies were included: 18 “Price” interventions, 6 “Place” interventions, 1 “Product” intervention, zero “Prescriptive” interventions, 4 “Promotion” interventions, and 18 “Person” interventions. “Price” interventions were most effective in groups with lower SEP, and may therefore appear likely to reduce inequalities. All interventions that combined taxes and subsidies consistently decreased inequalities. Conversely, interventions categorised as “Person” had a greater impact with increasing SEP, and may therefore appear likely to reduce inequalities. All four dietary counselling interventions appear likely to widen inequalities. We did not find any “Prescriptive” interventions and only one “Product” intervention that presented differential results and had no impact by SEP. More “Place” interventions were identified and none of these interventions were judged as likely to widen inequalities. Conclusions: Interventions categorised by a “6 Ps” framework show differential effects on healthy eating outcomes by SEP. “Upstream” interventions categorised as “Price” appeared to decrease inequalities, and “downstream” “Person” interventions, especially dietary counselling seemed to increase inequalities. However the vast majority of studies identified did not explore differential effects by SEP. Interventions aimed at improving population health should be routinely evaluated for differential socioeconomic impact.

The Role of Mixed Methods in Improved Cookstove Research

The challenge of promoting access to clean and efficient household energy for cooking and heating is a critical issue facing low- and middle-income countries today. Along with clean fuels, improved cookstoves (ICSs) continue to play an important part in efforts to reduce the 4 million annual premature deaths attributed to household air pollution. Although a range of ICSs are available, there is little empirical evidence on appropriate behavior change approaches to inform adoption and sustained used at scale. Specifically, evaluations using either quantitative or qualitative methods provide an incomplete picture of the challenges in facilitating ICS adoption. This article examines how studies that use the strengths of both these approaches can offer important insights into behavior change in relation to ICS uptake and scale-up. Epistemological approaches, study design frameworks, methods of data collection, analytical approaches, and issues of validity and reliability in the context of mixed methods ICS research are examined, and the article presents an example study design from an evaluation study in Kenya incorporating a nested approach and a convergent case oriented design. The authors discuss the benefits and methodological challenges of mixed-methods approaches in the context of researching behavior change and ICS use recognizing that such methods represent relatively uncharted territory. The authors propose that more published examples are needed to provide frameworks for other researchers seeking to apply mixed methods in this context and suggest a comprehensive research agenda is required that incorporates integrated mixed-methods approaches, to provide best evidence for future scale-up.

Systematic review of dietary salt reduction policies: Evidence for an effectiveness hierarchy?

Background Non-communicable disease (NCD) prevention strategies now prioritise four major risk factors: food, tobacco, alcohol and physical activity. Dietary salt intake remains much higher than recommended, increasing blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and stomach cancer. Substantial reductions in salt intake are therefore urgently needed. However, the debate continues about the most effective approaches. To inform future prevention programmes, we systematically reviewed the evidence on the effectiveness of possible salt reduction interventions. We further compared “downstream, agentic” approaches targeting individuals with “upstream, structural” policy-based population strategies. Methods We searched six electronic databases (CDSR, CRD, MEDLINE, SCI, SCOPUS and the Campbell Library) using a pre-piloted search strategy focussing on the effectiveness of population interventions to reduce salt intake. Retrieved papers were independently screened, appraised and graded for quality by two researchers. To facilitate comparisons between the interventions, the extracted data were categorised using nine stages along the agentic/structural continuum, from “downstream”: dietary counselling (for individuals, worksites or communities), through media campaigns, nutrition labelling, voluntary and mandatory reformulation, to the most “upstream” regulatory and fiscal interventions, and comprehensive strategies involving multiple components. Results After screening 2,526 candidate papers, 70 were included in this systematic review (49 empirical studies and 21 modelling studies). Some papers described several interventions. Quality was variable. Multi-component strategies involving both upstream and downstream interventions, generally achieved the biggest reductions in salt consumption across an entire population, most notably 4g/day in Finland and Japan, 3g/day in Turkey and 1.3g/day recently in the UK. Mandatory reformulation alone could achieve a reduction of approximately 1.45g/day (three separate studies), followed by voluntary reformulation (-0.8g/day), school interventions (-0.7g/day), short term dietary advice (-0.6g/day) and nutrition labelling (-0.4g/day), but each with a wide range. Tax and community based counselling could, each typically reduce salt intake by 0.3g/day, whilst even smaller population benefits were derived from health education media campaigns (-0.1g/day). Worksite interventions achieved an increase in intake (+0.5g/day), however, with a very wide range. Long term dietary advice could achieve a -2g/day reduction under optimal research trial conditions; however, smaller reductions might be anticipated in unselected individuals. Conclusions Comprehensive strategies involving multiple components (reformulation, food labelling and media campaigns) and “upstream” population-wide policies such as mandatory reformulation generally appear to achieve larger reductions in population-wide salt consumption than “downstream”, individually focussed interventions. This ‘effectiveness hierarchy’ might deserve greater emphasis in future NCD prevention strategies.

User Perspectives of Characteristics of Improved Cookstoves from a Field Evaluation in Western Kenya

Over half of the world’s population uses biomass fuels; these households cook on open fires indoors, increasing their risk of adverse health effects due to household air pollution (HAP) from biomass combustion. This study evaluated six improved cookstoves (ICS) for effectiveness and acceptability in a rural community in Western Kenya. This paper describes women’s views on each ICS compared to the traditional three-stone fire. Views on stove characteristics, fuel consumption, health effects and acceptability were assessed through structured interviews and focus group discussions. Data were coded and analyzed using a thematic approach. In total, 262 interviews and 11 focus groups were conducted from 43 women. Overall, women preferred the ICS over the traditional three-stone fire for various reasons including ease of use, efficiency, fuel efficiency and perceived reduction in smoke and improved health. However, there were clear preferences for specific ICS with almost half of women preferring a Philips stove. Despite acceptance and use of ICS, women used multiple stoves to meet their daily needs. Qualitative studies are essential to field evaluations to provide insight into user perspectives and acceptability of ICS and to inform research and development of technologies that are both effective in reducing HAP and practical in use.

Sugar-sweetened beverages coverage in the British media: an analysis of public health advocacy versus pro-industry messaging

Objectives To assess the extent of media-based public health advocacy versus pro-industry messaging regarding sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs). Design We conducted a systematic analysis to identify and examine all articles regarding SSBs published in all mainstream British print newspapers and their online news websites from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2014. We initially conducted a brief literature search to develop appropriate search terms and categorisations for grouping and analysing the articles. Articles were then coded according to the publishing newspaper, article type, topic, prominence and slant (pro-SSB or anti-SSB). A contextual analysis was undertaken to examine key messages in the articles. Results We identified 374 articles published during 2014. The majority of articles (81%) suggested that SSBs are unhealthy. Messaging from experts, campaign groups and health organisations was fairly consistent about the detrimental effects of SSB on health. However, relatively few articles assessed any approaches or solutions to potentially combat the problems associated with SSBs. Only one-quarter (24%) suggested any policy change. Meanwhile, articles concerning the food industry produced consistent messages emphasising consumer choice and individual responsibility for making choices regarding SSB consumption, and promoting and advertising their products. The food industry thus often managed to avoid association with the negative press that their products were receiving. Conclusions SSBs were frequently published in mainstream British print newspapers and their online news websites during 2014. Public health media advocacy was prominent throughout, with a growing consensus that sugary drinks are bad for peoples health. However, the challenge for public health will be to mobilise supportive public opinion to help implement effective regulatory policies. Only then will our populations excess consumption of SSBs come under control.

Estimated reductions in cardiovascular and gastric cancer disease burden through salt policies in England: An IMPACT NCD microsimulation study

Objective To estimate the impact and equity of existing and potential UK salt reduction policies on primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and gastric cancer (GCa) in England. Design A microsimulation study of a close-to-reality synthetic population. In the first period, 2003–2015, we compared the impact of current policy against a counterfactual ‘no intervention’ scenario, which assumed salt consumption persisted at 2003 levels. For 2016–2030, we assumed additional legislative policies could achieve a steeper salt decline and we compared this against the counterfactual scenario that the downward trend in salt consumption observed between 2001 and 2011 would continue up to 2030. Setting Synthetic population with similar characteristics to the non-institutionalised population of England. Participants Synthetic individuals with traits informed by the Health Survey for England. Main measure CVD and GCa cases and deaths prevented or postponed, stratified by fifths of socioeconomic status using the Index of Multiple Deprivation. Results Since 2003, current salt policies have prevented or postponed ∼52 000 CVD cases (IQR: 34 000–76 000) and 10 000 CVD deaths (IQR: 3000–17 000). In addition, the current policies have prevented ∼5000 new cases of GCa (IQR: 2000–7000) resulting in about 2000 fewer deaths (IQR: 0–4000). This policy did not reduce socioeconomic inequalities in CVD, and likely increased inequalities in GCa. Additional legislative policies from 2016 could further prevent or postpone ∼19 000 CVD cases (IQR: 8000–30 000) and 3600 deaths by 2030 (IQR: −400–8100) and may reduce inequalities. Similarly for GCa, 1200 cases (IQR: −200–3000) and 700 deaths (IQR: −900–2300) could be prevented or postponed with a neutral impact on inequalities. Conclusions Current salt reduction policies are powerfully effective in reducing the CVD and GCa burdens overall but fail to reduce the inequalities involved. Additional structural policies could achieve further, more equitable health benefits.

Effects of reducing processed culinary ingredients and ultra-processed foods in the Brazilian diet: a cardiovascular modelling study

OBJECTIVE To estimate the impact of reducing saturated fat, trans-fat, salt and added sugar from processed culinary ingredients and ultra-processed foods in the Brazilian diet on preventing cardiovascular deaths by 2030. DESIGN A modelling study. SETTING Data were obtained from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey 2008/2009. All food items purchased were categorized into food groups according to the NOVA classification. We estimated the energy and nutrient profile of foods then used the IMPACT Food Policy model to estimate the reduction in deaths from CVD up to 2030 in three scenarios. In Scenario A, we assumed that the intakes of saturated fat, trans-fat, salt and added sugar from ultra-processed foods and processed culinary ingredients were reduced by a quarter. In Scenario B, we assumed a reduction of 50 % of the same nutrients in ultra-processed foods and processed culinary ingredients. In Scenario C, we reduced the same nutrients in ultra-processed foods by 75 % and in processed culinary ingredients by 50 %. RESULTS Approximately 390 400 CVD deaths might be expected in 2030 if current mortality patterns persist. Under Scenarios A, B and C, CVD mortality can be reduced by 5·5, 11·0 and 29·0 %, respectively. The main impact is on stroke with a reduction of approximately 6·0, 12·6 and 32·0 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Substantial potential exists for reducing the CVD burden through overall improvements of the Brazilian diet. This might require reducing the penetration of ultra-processed foods by means of regulatory policies, as well as improving the access to and promotion of fresh and minimally processed foods.

Systematic review of dietary trans-fat reduction interventions

Abstract Objective To systematically review published studies of interventions to reduce people’s intake of dietary trans-fatty acids (TFAs). Methods We searched online databases (CINAHL, the CRD Wider Public Health database, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Ovid®, MEDLINE®, Science Citation Index and Scopus) for studies evaluating TFA interventions between 1986 and 2017. Absolute decrease in TFA consumption (g/day) was the main outcome measure. We excluded studies reporting only on the TFA content in food products without a link to intake. We included trials, observational studies, meta-analyses and modelling studies. We conducted a narrative synthesis to interpret the data, grouping studies on a continuum ranging from interventions targeting individuals to population-wide, structural changes. Results After screening 1084 candidate papers, we included 23 papers: 12 empirical and 11 modelling studies. Multiple interventions in Denmark achieved a reduction in TFA consumption from 4.5 g/day in 1976 to 1.5 g/day in 1995 and then virtual elimination after legislation banning TFAs in manufactured food in 2004. Elsewhere, regulations mandating reformulation of food reduced TFA content by about 2.4 g/day. Worksite interventions achieved reductions averaging 1.2 g/day. Food labelling and individual dietary counselling both showed reductions of around 0.8 g/day. Conclusion Multicomponent interventions including legislation to eliminate TFAs from food products were the most effective strategy. Reformulation of food products and other multicomponent interventions also achieved useful reductions in TFA intake. By contrast, interventions targeted at individuals consistently achieved smaller reductions. Future prevention strategies should consider this effectiveness hierarchy to achieve the largest reductions in TFA consumption.

Correction to: Household Determinants of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a Cooking Fuel in South West Cameroon

Household Determinants of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a Cooking Fuel in South West Cameroon

Media representations of sugar and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in UK newspapers: implications for public health policy

Abstract Background Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) have been identified as a key target for fiscal policy interventions designed to reduce sugar consumption and tackle obesity, particularly in young people. Research shows that the media have a powerful role in forming public perceptions, and thus likely acceptance, of such health policies. Our aim was to understand how newspapers play a part in shaping the acceptability of health policies in the case of SSB taxation. Methods We conducted quantitative content analysis of newsprint articles regarding sugar, SSBs, and taxation published in a diverse sample of 11 UK national newspapers from April 1, 2015, to Nov 30, 2016. Relevant articles were extracted by a systematic search of the Nexis database, and a structured coding frame was developed based on initial reading of a 10% subsample. A 10% subsample was double coded to ensure consistent application of codes. Frequency analysis and χ 2 testing was done in SPSS (version 24). Findings After exclusions, 684 relevant articles were identified. Articles were predominantly negative about sugar consumption (n=528, 77%) and SSB consumption (397, 58%), defining the problem in terms of impacts on health, primarily obesity (251, 37%). A high proportion of articles framed the problem as being driven by failures of industry (398, 58%). Discussion of potential solutions consistently focused on the need for government intervention (473, 69%) and the role that taxation could have. Peaks in reporting coincided with the publication of evidence, government policy documents, and campaigner activities. Interpretation The problem of sugar and SSBs received substantial media attention in UK national newspapers during 2015 and 2016, particularly prompted by public health advocates and campaigners. The focus of the narrative changed over time from emphasis on the problem to discussion of potential solutions. The framing of the debate identifying failures of industry as an important driver of the problem may have contributed to a greater public acceptance of government intervention and thus helped to open a policy window for a soft drinks industry levy. Funding Supported by the UK Medical Research Council as part of the Understandings and Uses of Public Health Research programme (MC_U130085862, MC_UU_12017/6) and the Informing Healthy Public Policy programme (MC_UU_12017/15) and by the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health Directorates (SPHSU15). The funders had no role in the commissioning of the study, writing of the abstract, or decision to submit it for publication.