Lisa Armistead

Unique and Protective Contributions of Parenting and Classroom Processes to the Adjustment of African American Children Living in Single-Parent Families

The unique contributions that parenting processes (high levels of monitoring with a supportive, involved mother-child relationship) and classroom processes (high levels of organization, rule clarity, and student involvement) make to childrens self-regulation and adjustment were examined with a sample of 277 single-parent African American families. A multi-informant design involving mothers, teachers, and 7- to 15-year-old children was used. Structural equation modeling indicated that parenting and classroom processes contributed uniquely to childrens adjustment through the childrens development of self-regulation. Additional analyses suggested that classroom processes can serve a protective-stabilizing function when parenting processes are compromised, and vice versa. Further research is needed to examine processes in both family and school contexts that promote child competence and resilience.

The Relationship between Religiosity and Adjustment among African-American, Female, Urban Adolescents.

African-American female adolescents living in urban environments are at risk for adverse adjustment outcomes, and thus it is imperative to identify protective factors. Religion has been found to be a significant protective resource against many types of maladaptive adjustment outcomes among adolescent samples. The present study accomplishes the following: (1) Provides a description of religiosity in a sample of African-American female teens; (2) examines religion as a resource for these adolescents by focusing on the association between religiosity and sexual activity, self-esteem, and general psychological functioning. Four-hundred ninety-two African-American females, ages 12-19, completed measures on religiosity, sexual activity, self-esteem, and psychological functioning. Most of the adolescents identified as Christian, reported a belief in God, and attended religious services. Greater overall religiosity was associated with greater self-esteem and better psychological functioning. Adolescents at different levels of self-religiosity, as well as family religiosity, evidenced significantly different self-esteem but not psychological distress or sexual activity. Adolescents with varying levels of church attendance demonstrated differences on all three outcomes. By identifying the ways in which religion may exert a positive impact on African-American female teens, mental health professionals can design interventions that have the potential to help improve the quality of life for these adolescents.

Developmental milestones and disclosure of sexual orientation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths

Abstract A total of 63 males and 54 females from the southeastern United States who averaged 20 years of age (range=14–27) answered a questionnaire concerned with coming-out milestones, disclosure, and self-esteem for gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths. The mean ages for first awareness of same-sex attraction (11 years), first same-sex sexual contact (16 years), and first disclosure of their sexual identity (17 years) were similar to other recent young samples. The order of these milestones varied among subgroups of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals, and proportions who were out to one or both parents differed for bisexuals and African Americans. The findings suggest diverse individual trajectories as opposed to an invariant sequence of coming-out experiences and highlight the need for greater attention to individual differences in sexual orientation identity development.

African-American Women and Self-Disclosure of HIV Infection: Rates, Predictors, and Relationship to Depressive Symptomatology

Unlike the prevalence rate of AIDS diagnoses for men, the prevalence rate for women has not reached a plateau. Moreover, the rate of AIDS diagnosis for African-American women is 17 times higher than for White women. In the context of considerable stress, these women must grapple with the question of to whom they can disclose their HIV diagnosis with minimal risk of negative consequences. This study examines patterns of disclosure to significant others, predictors of disclosure, and the relationship between disclosure and psychological functioning. Analyses indicated that women disclosed at varying rates to six different categories of others. Disclosure to mothers (66%) was most common, followed by disclosure to partners (56%). Rates of disclosure to children (28%) and fathers (25%) were lowest. Womens illness status predicted disclosure to father and friends. Only disclosure to partner was significantly related to womens psychological functioning: Fewer symptoms of depression were evident in women who had disclosed their HIV status to their partners compared to those who had not disclosed.

Victimization experiences and HIV infection in women: associations with serostatus, psychological symptoms, and health status.

The present investigation evaluates the relationship between HIV infection and victimization with regard to the interplay of these two factors as they relate to mental and physical health. Eighty eight inner-city low income African-American women who are HIV-infected and a demographically similar comparison group of women who were not HIV-infected were assessed for victimization experiences (rape, physical assault, robbery/attack) via interview. Additionally, the psychological symptoms and health status correlates of victimization within the HIV-infected group are delineated. Results indicated that women in the HIV-infected sample were significantly more likely to report a victimization experience. Additionally, within the HIV-infected group, victims reported higher levels of global psychological distress, depressive symptomatology, and greater distress regarding physical symptoms than nonvictims. Furthermore, HIV-infected victims were diagnosed with higher rates of AIDS-defining conditions than HIV-infected nonvictims. These results underscore the importance of acknowledging the experience of violent victimization in the prevention and treatment of HIV infection in women.

Noninfected children of HIV-infected mothers: A 4-year longitudinal study of child psychosocial adjustment and parenting*

The purposes of this study were to compare, across 4 years, the psychosocial adjustment of noninfected children (ages 6 to 11 at first assessment) whose mothers are and are not HIV-infected, examine differential changes of the two groups of children across the 4 years, and examine the role of parenting on the childs adjustment. Children of HIV-infected mothers reported more depressive symptoms across the four assessments than children whose mothers were not infected. Evidence for differential change of child psychosocial adjustment across assessments for the two groups did not emerge. Parenting variables, particularly the mother-child relationship, were related to child adjustment in both groups. Many of the findings suggest that mothers and children often provide unique perspectives. Prevention and intervention implications are considered.

Understanding gender differences in bereavement following the death of an infant: Implications of or treatment.

The death of an infant confronts parents with a multitude of difficult challenges. Bereaved parents often experience a grief that is unexpectedly pervasive, intense, and enduring. Support from family, friends, and medical professionals is often limited, and most parents rely predominantly on their partner or spouse for sustained support and understanding. Over time, partners often experience increased difficulties in supporting each other due to gender differences in grief and coping, strained communication, and characteristic patterns of misunderstandings. This article discusses research findings regarding gender similarities and differences in grief and coping following perinatal loss or loss from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and regarding marital difficulties associated with incongruent grieving. Also discussed are the impact of social support on the experience of bereavement, typical patterns of misunderstandings underlying many grief-related marital difficulties, and

Predictors of HIV antibody testing among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth

PURPOSE To identify factors related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibody testing among Gay, Lesbian, and bisexual youth. METHODS Self-reported demographics, risk behaviors, variables related to the Health Belief Model, and HIV testing data were collected at a conference for gay youth, as well as at the Gay and Lesbian Community Center in a Southeastern metropolitan area (n = 117). RESULTS About one third of participating youth who reported engaging in anal and vaginal sex had done so without a condom. In addition, one in four youth reported at least one other HIV risk factor. Of youth engaging in sexual risk behaviors, one third had not been tested for HIV antibodies. Furthermore, 61% of the youth reported some type of drug use, and only 57% of those using drugs had been tested. To determine factors associated with HIV testing, a hierarchical logistic regression was conducted. A binary variable of HIV testing was regressed first on demographic variables, second on risk factors, and third on variables derived from the Health Belief Model. Results of the logistic regression revealed that unprotected anal sex and the Health Belief Model variables predicted having been tested for HIV. The final model explained 42% of the variance in HIV testing. CONCLUSIONS Gay, Lesbian, and bisexual youth are at high risk for HIV infection and are often untested for HIV antibodies.

The role of community risks and resources in the psychosocial adjustment of at-risk children: An examination across two community contexts and two informants

Relative to the attention given to the family, the larger environmental context in which children live has received little attention. This study examined 277 African American children from single-parent families living in two community contexts: rural and urban. Resources and risks within each community were compared across communities. Furthermore, the relations of community, community environment (a resource-risk index), and the interaction of these two variables to child psychosocial adjustment were examined. Finally, the role of informant (mother or child) was examined. The results indicated that the mothers and children from the urban community reported more risks than those from the rural community. The community environment, but not community (rural vs. urban), related consistently to child psychosocial adjustment but only when the same informant (mother or child) reported both the resource-risk index and child psychosocial adjustment. Community did not qualify this relationship. Implications for prevention and intervention programs are considered.

Disclosure of Maternal HIV-Infection in South Africa: Description and Relationship to Child Functioning

South Africa has one of the highest HIV-infection rates in the world, yet few studies have examined disclosure of maternal HIV status and its influence on children. This study provides descriptive information about HIV disclosure among South African mothers and explores whether family context variables interact with maternal HIV disclosure to affect children’s functioning. A total of 103 mothers, who self-identified as living with HIV and who were the primary caregivers of a child between the ages of 11 and 16, were interviewed. A total of 44% of mothers had disclosed, and those who had most typically perceived children’s reactions to disclosure to be sadness and worry. Widows and married mothers were more likely than single mothers to disclose their HIV status. Disclosure to children significantly predicted externalizing, but not internalizing, behaviors. Family variables had direct but not interactive effects on child functioning. This study highlights the complexity of disclosure-related decisions and the importance of addressing the family context.