Lisa J. Crockett

Timing of first sexual intercourse: The role of social control, social learning, and problem behavior

Prior research has pointed to several distinct processes that may affect the timing of first intercourse among adolescents. In the present study, the role of six hypothesized processes was assessed in a sample of 289 rural adolescent boys and girls. Results support the importance of family socialization and problem-behavior for both sexes, the role of biological factors for boys, and the role of social control processes for girls. Two other hypothesized influences—social class and poor psychosocial adjustment—were not supported in either gender. These results indicate that multiple processes influence the timing of first intercourse; thus, they underscore the need for eclectic predictive models that incorporate the multiplicity of influences.

The significance of self-reported anxious symptoms in first-grade children

It is generally believed that prior to the middle to late elementary school years childrens reports of anxious symptoms represent nothing more than transient developmental phenomena. In light of the limited empirical study of this issue and its import to the allocation of mental health resources, the present study seeks to provide empirical evidence of the significance of anxious symptoms in children younger than 7. Specifically, utilizing an epidemiologically defined population of 1197 first-grade children, followed longitudinally from the fall to spring of first grade, we examine the stability, prevalence and caseness of childrens self-reports of anxious symptoms. Self-reported anxious symptoms proved relatively stable over 4-month test-retest interval. In addition, they appeared to have a significant impact on academic functioning in terms of reading achievement. These findings on stability, caseness, and prevalence suggest childrens self-reported anxious symptoms in the early elementary school years may have clinical significance. However, further study is necessary before firm conclusions can be drawn.

Longitudinal adjustment patterns of boys and girls experiencing early, middle, and late sexual intercourse

This study examined the association between psychosocial development and the timing offirst sexual intercourse in a sample of White, rural adolescents. Two theoretical models were tested. The first model, derived from problem behavior theory, proposed that earlier timing of first sexual intercourse is associated with longitudinal patterns of transition proneness and poor psychosocial adjustment. The second model, the stage termination model, proposed that early first sexual intercourse interferes with subsequent development, thereby resulting in negative developmental outcomes. Problem behavior theory was supported. For both boys and girls, earlier timing of first sexual intercourse was associated with longitudinal patterns of greater transition proneness and poorer psychosocial adjustment. The stage termination model was not supported. No evidence was found suggesting that early timing of first sexual intercourse results in negative psychosocial outcomes.

Father's Presence and Young Children's Behavioral and Cognitive Adjustment

The present study examined the impact of the biological father on young childrens cognitive and behavioral adjustment. Using data from the 1986 Child Supplement of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the relationship between fathers coresidence in the household over the first 3 years of a childs life and childrens adjustment was assessed for 1,688 four-to six-year-old children. Two dimensions of father-presence were considered, reflecting the timing of the fathers entry into the household and the duration of his presence during the childs first 3 years of life. Within-group analyses of variance indicated significant effects of father-presence for White and Hispanic children and for children born to teenage and older mothers. All of these initial effects disappeared, however, once controls for child characteristics, maternal characteristics, and family resources were introduced in multiple regression models. These findings suggest that the father-effects operated through family characteristics and did not represent unique effects of fathering.

A Longitudinal Investigation of the Relationship between Educational Investment and Adolescent Sexual Activity

The relation between educational investment and sexual behavior was examined longitudinally in a sample of479 rural adolescents. Surveys were administered to the subjects twice-once when they were in the 8th, 9th, and 10th grades, and again 2 years later, when they were in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. Results indicated that among girls, educational investment predicted sexual activity, with academic grades in school significantly predicting reportedfrequency of sexual activity 2 years later. In contrast,forboys, sexual involvement predicted later educational investment, particularly involvement in academic activities. These findings suggest different developmental pattems for boys and girls. For girls, academic involvement may limit their sexual activity. However, sexual activity does not seem to reduce educational involvement. In contrast, sexual activity is associated with less involvement in academic activities for boys. The possible reasons for these gender differences are discussed.

Are self-reported depressive symptoms in first-grade children developmentally transient phenomena? A further look

In light of putative developmental constraints, some have argued that prior to the middle to late elementary school years childrens reports of depressive symptoms represent nothing more than transient developmental phenomena. In an earlier study of an epidemiologically defined sample of first-grade children, self-reported depressive symptoms proved relatively stable and significantly related to adaptive functioning. In the present study, we follow that cohort of first graders longitudinally and assess the prognostic value of self-reports of depressive symptoms in first grade with respect to depressive symptoms and adaptive functioning in the late elementary school years. We also assess whether or not childrens reports of depressive symptoms demonstrate greater stability and are more highly associated with adaptive functioning in the middle to late elementary school years. First-grade depressive symptoms were found to have significant prognostic value in terms of levels of depressive symptoms and adaptive functioning in fifth grade, with the strength of prediction varying by gender in the former. Although there was a moderate increase in short-term stability from first to fifth grade, it remained consistently strong across first, fourth, and fifth grades. The magnitude of the relationship between depressive symptoms and adaptive functioning also remained consistent over time. These findings on stability, caseness, and prognostic power attest to the significance of childrens self-reports of depressive symptoms in the early as well as the middle to late elementary school years.

The course of aggression in first-grade children with and without comorbid anxious symptoms.

We studied the course of aggressive behavior in an epidemiologically defined sample of first graders with and without comorbid anxious symptoms. Our primary purpose in doing so was to understand whether the stability of aggression in young children was attenuated or strengthened in the presence of comorbid anxiety. Previous studies of older children and adolescents had produced equivocal findings in this regard. Data on anxious symptoms were obtained through an interview of the children, whereas aggressive behavior was assessed through the use of a teacher interview and peer nominations. Assessments were performed in the fall and spring of first grade. In contrast to children classified as aggressive alone in the fall of first grade, boys and girls classified as aggressive and anxious in the fall of first grade were significantly more likely to be classified as aggressive in the spring in terms of teacher ratings and/or peer nominations of aggression. Thus our findings suggest that the link between early and later aggression may be strengthened in the presence of comorbid anxious symptoms, rather than attenuated. Future studies are needed to identify the mechanisms by which the course of aggression is influenced by the presence of comorbid anxiety.

Antecedents of rural adolescent alcohol use: a risk factor approach.

The present study examines the association between risk factors and alcohol use for a sample of young adolescents in a rural eastern community. Family relations, family structure, marks in school, participation in academic activities, frequency of church attendance, and deviant behavior were found to be significantly associated with alcohol use two years later. No gender or age differences were found in these predictors of alcohol use. These six risk variables were combined to form a risk index. A 3 × 2 × 2 (User group by Gender by Grade) ANOVA was used to examine the association between the risk index score at Year 1 and level of alcohol use at Year 3. Only the main effect for User group was significant. Thus, the number of risk factors at Year 1 was predictive of alcohol use at Year 3. The risk index also predicted frequency of alcohol use in a replication sample. Implications for the risk factor approach, prevention, and intervention are discussed.

Patterns of adult male coresidence among young children of adolescent mothers

This article uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to examine the coresidence patterns of children and adult males during the first three years of a childs life, with special attention to the children of adolescent mothers. Overall, the most common experience was for the children to have an adult male present over the full period. However, there were differences by race and the mothers age when she gave birth. For example, 83 percent of white children and 47 percent of black children born to mothers aged 20 or older lived with an adult male during their entire early childhood, while three quarters of white children and fewer than one-third of black children born to mothers younger than 18 had a male present in their household over their first three years. Among both races, children of older mothers were significantly more likely than others to be born into a household where an adult male was present. The stability of male coresidence varied significantly by the mothers age among white children, but not among blacks. Overall, black children experienced more changes in male coresidence than whites. Finally, the likelihood that the adult male would be married to the mother was positively associated with white race and the age of the mother when she gave birth.

Biological Correlates of Spatial Ability and Mathematical Performance

Before we review what we know about biological correlates of cognition, it is important to consider why there is such interest in sex differences. While expectations for sex differences have often biased the conduct of this research, from hypothesis formulation, through method and sample selection, to inferences (e.g., see Wittig and Petersen, 1983, for a review), many researchers study sex differences to discover the processes of cognition. The differences and similarities in the performance of males and females can reveal much about what constitutes cognition. There has been particular focus recently on sex differences in brain functioning (Goleman, 1978), a focus probably due more to the recent advances in neuroscience together with the interest and research on sex differences in cognition, than to actual research on sex differences in brain functioning. The links between cognitive performance and the brain, like those between cognitive performance and other biological factors, have often been conceptualized only loosely, with misrepresentations appearing in scientific publications as well as the popular media. Nevertheless, benefits have also accrued from the attention to possible links between sex differences in cognitive performance and sex differences in brain function. Most importantly, the attention has spurred further research, particularly on the important social influences that may modulate relationships between cognition and biological factors and play a role in the development of sex differences in cognitive performance. Outstanding researchers have been drawn into the field because of the controversy. As a result, we are in a better position today than ever before to address the issues with a strong, although yet incomplete, database. The purpose of this chapter is to review biological correlates of mathematics and other kinds of cognitive performance. Our conceptual framework, however, involves an interactional biopsychosocial model (Petersen, 1979, 1980; Petersen and Wittig, 1979). (FIG. 1). There is evidence that all behavior, including cognitive behavior, results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social influences. The relative importance of each influence varies