Lisa-Marie Munter

GxxxG motifs within the amyloid precursor protein transmembrane sequence are critical for the etiology of Aβ42

Processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β‐ and γ‐secretases leads to the generation of amyloid‐β (Aβ) peptides with varying lengths. Particularly Aβ42 contributes to cytotoxicity and amyloid accumulation in Alzheimers disease (AD). However, the precise molecular mechanism of Aβ42 generation has remained unclear. Here, we show that an amino‐acid motif GxxxG within the APP transmembrane sequence (TMS) has regulatory impact on the Aβ species produced. In a neuronal cell system, mutations of glycine residues G29 and G33 of the GxxxG motif gradually attenuate the TMS dimerization strength, specifically reduce the formation of Aβ42, leave the level of Aβ40 unaffected, but increase Aβ38 and shorter Aβ species. We show that glycine residues G29 and G33 are part of a dimerization site within the TMS, but do not impair oligomerization of the APP ectodomain. We conclude that γ‐secretase cleavages of APP are intimately linked to the dimerization strength of the substrate TMS. The results demonstrate that dimerization of APP TMS is a risk factor for AD due to facilitating Aβ42 production.

Amyloid beta 42 peptide (Aβ42)-lowering compounds directly bind to Aβ and interfere with amyloid precursor protein (APP) transmembrane dimerization

Following ectodomain shedding by β-secretase, successive proteolytic cleavages within the transmembrane sequence (TMS) of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) catalyzed by γ-secretase result in the release of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides of variable length. Aβ peptides with 42 amino acids appear to be the key pathogenic species in Alzheimer’s disease, as they are believed to initiate neuronal degeneration. Sulindac sulfide, which is known as a potent γ-secretase modulator (GSM), selectively reduces Aβ42 production in favor of shorter Aβ species, such as Aβ38. By studying APP–TMS dimerization we previously showed that an attenuated interaction similarly decreased Aβ42 levels and concomitantly increased Aβ38 levels. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which GSMs modulate Aβ production is still unclear. In this study, using a reporter gene-based dimerization assay, we found that APP–TMS dimers are destabilized by sulindac sulfide and related Aβ42-lowering compounds in a concentration-dependent manner. By surface plasmon resonance analysis and NMR spectroscopy, we show that sulindac sulfide and novel sulindac-derived compounds directly bind to the Aβ sequence. Strikingly, the attenuated APP–TMS interaction by GSMs correlated strongly with Aβ42-lowering activity and binding strength to the Aβ sequence. Molecular docking analyses suggest that certain GSMs bind to the GxxxG dimerization motif in the APP–TMS. We conclude that these GSMs decrease Aβ42 levels by modulating APP–TMS interactions. This effect specifically emphasizes the importance of the dimeric APP–TMS as a promising drug target in Alzheimer’s disease.

Homophilic Interactions of the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Ectodomain Are Regulated by the Loop Region and Affect β-Secretase Cleavage of APP

We found previously by fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments that amyloid precursor protein (APP) homodimerizes in living cells. APP homodimerization is likely to be mediated by two sites of the ectodomain and a third site within the transmembrane sequence of APP. We have now investigated the role of the N-terminal growth factor-like domain in APP dimerization by NMR, biochemical, and cell biological approaches. Under nonreducing conditions, the N-terminal domain of APP formed SDS-labile and SDS-stable complexes. The presence of SDS was sufficient to convert native APP dimers entirely into monomers. Addition of an excess of a synthetic peptide (APP residues 91-116) containing the disulfide bridge-stabilized loop inhibited cross-linking of pre-existing SDS-labile APP ectodomain dimers. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed that this peptide specifically bound to the N-terminal domain of APP and that binding was entirely dependent on the oxidation of the thiol groups. By solution-state NMR we detected small chemical shift changes indicating that the loop peptide interacted with a large protein surface rather than binding to a defined pocket. Finally, we studied the effect of the loop peptide added to the medium of living cells. Whereas the levels of α-secretory APP increased, soluble β-cleaved APP levels decreased. Because Aβ40 and Aβ42 decreased to similar levels as soluble β-cleaved APP, we conclude either that β-secretase binding to APP was impaired or that the peptide allosterically affected APP processing. We suggest that APP acquires a loop-mediated homodimeric state that is further stabilized by interactions of hydrophobic residues of neighboring domains.

Role of Amyloid-β Glycine 33 in Oligomerization, Toxicity, and Neuronal Plasticity

The aggregation of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease, as soluble oligomers are intimately linked to neuronal toxicity and inhibition of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). In the C-terminal region of Aβ there are three consecutive GxxxG dimerization motifs, which we could previously demonstrate to play a critical role in the generation of Aβ. Here, we show that glycine 33 (G33) of the central GxxxG interaction motif within the hydrophobic Aβ sequence is important for the aggregation dynamics of the peptide. Aβ peptides with alanine or isoleucine substitutions of G33 displayed an increased propensity to form higher oligomers, which we could attribute to conformational changes. Importantly, the oligomers of G33 variants were much less toxic than Aβ42 wild type (WT), in vitro and in vivo. Also, whereas Aβ42 WT is known to inhibit LTP, Aβ42 G33 variants had lost the potential to inhibit LTP. Our findings reveal that conformational changes induced by G33 substitutions unlink toxicity and oligomerization of Aβ on the molecular level and suggest that G33 is the key amino acid in the toxic activity of Aβ. Thus, a specific toxic conformation of Aβ exists, which represents a promising target for therapeutic interventions.

Subcellular localization and dimerization of APLP1 are strikingly different from APP and APLP2

The molecular association between APP and its mammalian homologs has hardly been explored. In systematically addressing this issue, we show by live cell imaging that APLP1 mainly localizes to the cell surface, whereas APP and APLP2 are mostly found in intracellular compartments. Homo- and heterotypic cis interactions of APP family members could be detected by FRET and co-immunoprecipitation analysis and occur in a modular mode. Only APLP1 formed trans interactions, supporting the argument for a putative specific role of APLP1 in cell adhesion. Deletion mutants of APP family members revealed two highly conserved regions as important for the protein crosstalk. In particular, the N-terminal half of the ectodomain was crucial for APP and APLP2 interactions. By contrast, multimerization of APLP1 was only partially dependent on this domain but strongly on the C-terminal half of the ectodomain. We further observed that coexpression of APP with APLP1 or APLP2 leads to diminished generation of Aβ42. The current data suggest that this is due to the formation of heteromeric complexes, opening the way for novel therapeutic strategies targeting these complexes.

Aberrant Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Processing in Hereditary Forms of Alzheimer Disease Caused by APP Familial Alzheimer Disease Mutations Can Be Rescued by Mutations in the APP GxxxG Motif

The identification of hereditary familial Alzheimer disease (FAD) mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin-1 (PS1) corroborated the causative role of amyloid-β peptides with 42 amino acid residues (Aβ42) in the pathogenesis of AD. Although most FAD mutations are known to increase Aβ42 levels, mutations within the APP GxxxG motif are known to lower Aβ42 levels by attenuating transmembrane sequence dimerization. Here, we show that aberrant Aβ42 levels of FAD mutations can be rescued by GxxxG mutations. The combination of the APP-GxxxG mutation G33A with APP-FAD mutations yielded a constant 60% decrease of Aβ42 levels and a concomitant 3-fold increase of Aβ38 levels compared with the Gly33 wild-type as determined by ELISA. In the presence of PS1-FAD mutations, the effects of G33A were attenuated, apparently attributable to a different mechanism of PS1-FAD mutants compared with APP-FAD mutants. Our results contribute to a general understanding of the mechanism how APP is processed by the γ-secretase module and strongly emphasize the potential of the GxxxG motif in the prevention of sporadic AD as well as FAD.

The Proton-Pump Inhibitor Lansoprazole Enhances Amyloid Beta Production

A key event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) species in the brain, derived from the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretases. Based on a systems biology study to repurpose drugs for AD, we explore the effect of lansoprazole, and other proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), on Aβ production in AD cellular and animal models. We found that lansoprazole enhances Aβ37, Aβ40 and Aβ42 production and lowers Aβ38 levels on amyloid cell models. Interestingly, acute lansoprazole treatment in wild type and AD transgenic mice promoted higher Aβ40 levels in brain, indicating that lansoprazole may also exacerbate Aβ production in vivo. Overall, our data presents for the first time that PPIs can affect amyloid metabolism, both in vitro and in vivo.

Cellular Copper Import by Nanocarrier Systems, Intracellular Availability, and Effects on Amyloid β Peptide Secretion

Studies in animals have reported that normalized or elevated Cu levels can inhibit or even remove Alzheimers disease-related pathological plaques and exert a desirable amyloid-modifying effect. We tested engineered nanocarriers composed of diverse core-shell architectures to modulate Cu levels under physiological conditions through bypassing the cellular Cu uptake systems. Two different nanocarrier systems were able to transport Cu across the plasma membrane of yeast or higher eukaryotic cells, CS-NPs (core-shell nanoparticles) and CMS-NPs (core-multishell nanoparticles). Intracellular Cu levels could be increased up to 3-fold above normal with a sublethal dose of carriers. Both types of carriers released their bound guest molecules into the cytosolic compartment where they were accessible for the Cu-dependent enzyme SOD1. In particular, CS-NPs reduced Abeta levels and targeted intracellular organelles more efficiently than CMS-NPs. Fluorescently labeled CMS-NPs unraveled a cellular uptake mechanism, which depended on clathrin-mediated endocytosis in an energy-dependent manner. In contrast, the transport of CS-NPs was most likely driven by a concentration gradient. Overall, nanocarriers depending on the nature of the surrounding shell functioned by mediating import of Cu across cellular membranes, increased levels of bioavailable Cu, and affected Abeta turnover. Our studies illustrate that Cu-charged nanocarriers can achieve a reasonable metal ion specificity and represent an alternative to metal-complexing agents. The results demonstrate that carrier strategies have potential for the treatment of metal ion deficiency disorders.

The Amyloid Precursor Protein C-Terminal Fragment C100 Occurs in Monomeric and Dimeric Stable Conformations and Binds γ-Secretase Modulators

The amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is contained within the C-terminal fragment (β-CTF) of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and is intimately linked to Alzheimers disease. In vivo, Aβ is generated by sequential cleavage of β-CTF within the γ-secretase module. To investigate γ-secretase function, in vitro assays are in widespread use which require a recombinant β-CTF substrate expressed in bacteria and purified from inclusion bodies, termed C100. So far, little is known about the conformation of C100 under different conditions of purification and refolding. Since C100 dimerization influences the efficiency and specificity of γ-secretase cleavage, it is also of great interest to determine the secondary structure and the oligomeric state of the synthetic substrate as well as the binding properties of small molecules named γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) which we could previously show to modulate APP transmembrane sequence interactions [Richter et al. (2010) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 14597-14602]. Here, we use circular dichroism and continuous-wave electron spin resonance measurements to show that C100 purified in a buffer containing SDS at micelle-forming concentrations adopts a highly stable α-helical conformation, in which it shows little tendency to aggregate or to form higher oligomers than dimers. By surface plasmon resonance analysis and molecular modeling we show that the GSM sulindac sulfide binds to C100 and has a preference for C100 dimers.

Evidence for Heterodimerization and Functional Interaction of the Angiotensin Type 2 Receptor and the Receptor MAS

The angiotensin type 2 receptor (AT2R) and the receptor MAS are receptors of the protective arm of the renin–angiotensin system. They mediate strikingly similar actions. Moreover, in various studies, AT2R antagonists blocked the effects of MAS agonists and vice versa. Such cross-inhibition may indicate heterodimerization of these receptors. Therefore, this study investigated the molecular and functional interplay between MAS and the AT2R. Molecular interactions were assessed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer and by cross correlation spectroscopy in human embryonic kidney-293 cells transfected with vectors encoding fluorophore-tagged MAS or AT2R. Functional interaction of AT2R and MAS was studied in astrocytes with CX3C chemokine receptor-1 messenger RNA expression as readout. Coexpression of fluorophore-tagged AT2R and MAS resulted in a fluorescence resonance energy transfer efficiency of 10.8 ± 0.8%, indicating that AT2R and MAS are capable to form heterodimers. Heterodimerization was verified by competition experiments using untagged AT2R and MAS. Specificity of dimerization of AT2R and MAS was supported by lack of dimerization with the transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily C-member 6. Dimerization of the AT2R was abolished when it was mutated at cysteine residue 35. AT2R and MAS stimulation with the respective agonists, Compound 21 or angiotensin-(1–7), significantly induced CX3C chemokine receptor-1 messenger RNA expression. Effects of each agonist were blocked by an AT2R antagonist (PD123319) and also by a MAS antagonist (A-779). Knockout of a single of these receptors made astrocytes unresponsive for both agonists. Our results suggest that MAS and the AT2R form heterodimers and that—at least in astrocytes—both receptors functionally depend on each other.