Lloyd H. Lofquist

A Theory of Work Adjustment

Theory of work adjustment has been proposed, which might contribute to the development of a “science of the psychology of occupational behavior.” It builds on the basic psychological concepts of stimulus, response, and reinforcement, and provides a research paradigm for the generation of testable hypotheses. The proper subject matter for vocational psychology, as well as general psychology, is the individual as a responding organism. The individual as a responding organism is assumed to have a set of response potentials, the upper limits of which, with respect to range and quality, are determined by heredity. The individual would respond when his response potentials make responding possible, and when the environment permits and/or stimulates responding. As the individual responds, his responding becomes associated with reinforcers in his environment. Reinforcers are environmental conditions that maintain responding, that is, which are associated with the continuance of responding. Specific reinforcers in the environment become associated with specific responses of the individual.

Measurement of person-environment fit and prediction of satisfaction in the theory of work adjustment☆

Abstract The measurement of person-environment (P-E) fit and the relationship of fit and job satisfaction are described, illustrated, and evaluated from the perspective of the Theory of Work Adjustment. The construct of correspondence is explicated in terms of statistical measures and applied to the prediction of job satisfaction. Two studies are reported. Using 19 statistical indices across six occupational groups, study 1 examined the issues of commensurate measurement and representations of the correspondence and satisfaction relationship. Results provided evidence for commensurate structures and directional interpretations of needreinforcer correspondence. Study 2 evaluated the relationship of four correspondence indices and job satisfaction with 225 adult vocational counseling clients in 98 different occupations 1 year after initial contact. The findings indicated that the correspondence and satisfaction relationship was moderated by profile component, type of reinforcer profile, and clients sex. Overall, the results show that the best statistical indices for assessing correspondence seem to be measures of profile shape, which explain 3 to 30% of the variance in satisfaction. Implications for commensurate measurement and for the operational and theoretical development of the concept of correspondence are discussed.

Values as second-order needs in the theory of work adjustment

Abstract Values, as importance dimensions, are conceptualized in the context of the theory of work adjustment as reference dimensions for the description of needs. Factor analyses of Minnesota Importance Questionnaire data are presented to operationalize this conceptualization. Six value dimensions: Safety, Comfort, Aggrandizement, Altruism, Achievement, and Autonomy are identified. These six value dimensions are organized further in terms of broader classes of reinforcement preferences (related to external environment, people, and self) and approach to the work situation (as competitive or noncompetitive).

A Note on the Dynamics of Work Adjustment.

Abstract The process of work adjustment, as derived from the Theory of Work Adjustment, is presented in a systems-type model. The model integrates the original propositions of the theory with the more recent work on personality-style dimensions. The mechanisms of adjustment to work are discussed to emphasize the dynamic nature of the complete work-adjustment process. The constructs of Work Behavior and Organizational Behavior are introduced as intervening variables in the adjustment process. It is also shown that the forecasting of work adjustment requires the addition of the constructs of Abilities and Ability Requirements.

Estimating Occupational Prestige.

Abstract The occupational prestige literature provides evidence of prestige hierarchies that have remained relatively intact for over 60 years. This article draws from the occupational prestige literature in describing the development of prestige estimates for occupations contained in the Minnesota Occupational Classification System III (MOCS III). The first phase of development consisted of an empirical study that involved ranking three sets of 25 occupations. The results provided prestige estimates for 60 occupations and a comparison of prestige scores for 8 “benchmark” occupations. The second phase of development involved testing the comparability of these results with a larger data base. The third phase of development extended the ability to estimate occupational prestige by using a regression equation that allows for assigning prestige estimates to approximately 20,000 occupations. Potential use of the prestige score in the MOCS III is discussed in relation to vocational counseling.

Perception of work reinforcer systems: Factor structure

Abstract The factor structure of 109 Occupational Reinforcer Patterns approximating the distribution of the employed labor force of the United States was investigated. These work-reinforcer systems, as perceived by almost 6000 raters, were found to be represented best by a three-factor solution. The factors were identified as a Self Reinforcement factor, an Environmental/Organizational reinforcement factor, and a Reinforcement via-Altruism factor. The factors were found to correspond to, respectively, the Achievement-Autonomy, Safety-Comfort, and Al-truism need factors of the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire. For these two measures utilized in the assessment of individual-environment correspondence, commensurate measurement—as required by person-environment fit theories—is possible.

Toward a psychological taxonomy of work

Abstract A new approach to the construction of a psychological taxonomy of work is presented. Based on the Theory of Work Adjustment, occupational aptitude patterns and occupational reinforcer-pattern clusters are cross-classified to develop psychologically homogeneous groups of occupations (Taxons). Information from other different and independently developed classification systems is imbedded in the taxon matrix. The validity of the approach is supported by the consistency and complementarity of the descriptive information in a given taxon derived from these different sources.

Life history correlates of vocational needs for a female adult sample

According to vocational theory and practice, a relationship exists between vocational needs and life history developmental/experiential factors. A test of this hypothesis was conducted using self-report biodata and measured vocational needs. A 211-item Biographical Information Form (BIF) and the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ) were administered to 290 female adults. A weighted BIF was developed to predict scores on each of the 20 MIQ need scales. Using a double cross-validation design, statistically significant (p < .01) average validities were obtained for 19 of the 20 vocational need scales, ranging from .13 to .47, with a median of .35. The female prediction equations failed to generalize to a male sample (N = 100), with only 1 of the 20 MIQ subscale prediction equations being validated. Further analysis showed the practical utility of the BIF as a substitute measure of vocational needs for this female sample. Implications for counseling practice and work adjustment theory are discussed.