Lois McFadyen Christensen

Critical pedagogy for early childhood and elementary educators

Chapter 1 What is Critical Pedagogy?.- Chapter 2 Being Critical of Critical Pedagogy.- Chapter 3 Assumptions-Where are We?.- Chapter 4 Identity.- Chapter 5 Praxis and Critical Pedagogy.- Chapter 6 Discrimination.- Chapter 7 Gender and Ethnicity.- Chapter 8 The Dilemma of Social Justice.- Chapter 9 Teaching for Transformation.- Chapter 10 Looking Back and Moving Forward.

What Is Critical Pedagogy

From multiple perspectives by numerous theorists, critical pedagogy is defined in this chapter. Critical pedagogy is a lifelong journey relative to class, ethnicity, power, gender, sexual orientation, and nationality. But how do the definitions translate to classroom practice? This chapter offers descriptions about how to rethink assumptions and classroom practices based on what we know about critical pedagogy. Prospective teachers through veteran educators are encouraged to reflect on teaching and learning practices and to expand their worldview. Also addressed is the vocabulary used in critical pedagogy. Definitions of terms conclude this chapter.

Teachers' Reflections on Their Practice of Social Studies

n the early twentieth century, John I Dewey (1909/1993) nurtured the seedling notion of the reflective practitioner. In recent years, researchers (Adler 1994; Schon 1987; Zeichner and Liston 1987) have had a renewed interest in reflectivity prototypes and have promoted reflective practice as a means of nurturing teacher development. Reflective practice is a conceptual orientation. It is a way to think about dissonance and to examine observations, problems, conflicting philosophies, belief systems, and ideologies. As an active means of thoughtful consideration, reflection is a persistent search for explanations and alternatives in an attempt to resolve perplexity within an experience (Dewey 1933; Elby 1993).

Teaching for Transformation

Critical pedagogy is evidenced by action or teaching for transformation. However, most traditional classrooms are concerned with teaching as transmission or teaching as transaction. Definitions and examples of transmission, transaction, and transformation are provided, and explicit examples of each type of classroom are explained in this chapter. What happens when teachers teach for transmission, for transaction, for transformation? The largest section of this chapter includes examples from transformative educators in settings and classrooms where they made transformation visible and easily described as they moved toward transformation.

Early Childhood Visual Arts Curriculum: Freeing Spaces to Express Developmental and Cultural Palettes of Mind

C urrently, the field of early childhood education is greatly focused on literacy, numeracy, and assessment, much to young children’s detriment. Policymakers further set the stage for early childhood learners to become formally engaged in academic instruction and often direct administrators and teachers to do the same. Teachers become de-professionalized by this push to hasten children’s learning (Aldridge & Goldman, 2006; Katz, 1993; Kohn, 2001; Ohanian, 1999), which concentrates on cognitive functioning at lower levels, such as emphasizing memorization and fact recall. Placing such pressure on young children solely for academic success results in stifling the vital experience of creative, critical verbal reflection that naturally occurs with youngsters. Such pressures also lead to a movement to create a one-size-fitsall national curriculum (Association for Childhood Education International [ACEI], 2001; Novinger & OBrien, 2003). As these pressures on academics persist, young learners lose vital opportunities to effectively construct meaning and concepts through a developmentally appropriate curriculum of discovery. Developing language and interpreting experiences through social, verbal, emotional, and cognitive interactions within a caring community of learners are characteristics of a young child’s natural experience (ACEI, 2002; National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1996). Children seldom have opportunities to pursue their own interests in activities that allow thought and language development to occur within naturalistic and developmentally appropriate environments (ACEI, 2001; Kohn, 2004). Because aesthetic education, particularly in the visual arts, are commonly absent in early childhood educational settings, the ”push-down” curriculum intensifies. NAEYC‘s 1996 position statement maintains that children thrive when they experience learning in relevant, cultural contexts focused on language development. It further avows that social, physical, emotional, and cognitive growth are interrelated, and their development within a high-quality, caring community of learners results in an appropriate early childhood setting for optimal growth. When young children experience a constructivist, discoveryoriented curricular approach to early education, the whole child is formatively educated (Dewey, 1966). Unfortunately, passive learning appears to be the norm in schools today. Although holistic approaches to learning are crucial to children’s construction of knowledge (Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, 2005), many schools utilize approaches that are programmed and/or isolated from the learning process. It is totally inappropriate and irrelevant to break learning into insignificant parts that are not meaningfully related. Placing pressure on

The Dilemma of Social Justice

What is social justice? What does citizenship have to do with social justice? These questions are at the forefront of this chapter. Can Fraser’s model of social justice assist educators to help promote equality? Three continuums of this model are explained, so teachers at every level can deeply ponder where they should navigate regarding each continuum of Fraser’s model. Can we promote equality by focusing on “sameness” or “difference” in the classroom? Which is more important? Do we show how we are all alike? Do we emphasize how we are different? Where is the middle ground? A second continuum to consider is that of recognition versus redistribution? Should we recognize that there are inequities as part of reality or should we work with students to redistribute the capital that is available? Finally, should we emphasize interaction on the microlevel or on the macrolevel? In other words, do we make a difference in the world more effectively through action by one on one or small groups? Or, is action more effective by working within a larger context at the macrolevel?

Looking Back and Moving Forward

This chapter is a summary and synthesis of the previous chapters. It is designed to help early childhood and elementary educators and students to consider how they can take social action together within a democratic, critical pedagogical classroom. The inclusion of all voices involved in the classroom and setting is integrally necessary to move forward in critical pedagogy. The loudest voices in education and that politically affect education are still white men. This must change if all voices are heard and incorporated into the conversation about educational change. Not only educators at every level are to engage in praxis, but the youngest of children can be taught to become involved in praxis, becoming active participants and stakeholders in the process.

Praxis and Critical Pedagogy

Praxis is the complex intermingling of theory and practice. The term “praxis” is derived from ancient Greek. Enacting praxis, early childhood and elementary educators reflect on practice through self-dialogue, among other educators and students. Then, educators and students decide and take action based on reflection and dialogue. Teachers engaged in practice soon realize that praxis requires them to reexamine cherished beliefs and consider alternative teaching and learning practices.

Gender, Ethnicity, and Disability

How do educators and children identify with gender and ethnicity? This chapter provides ways for early childhood and elementary educators to promote gender equity in classrooms and in practice. Background information into gender legislation is also presented. The discrimination of women in educational arenas is another major focus of this chapter. Discrimination in teacher education is described in detail. Foundations of education texts continue to focus on dead, white men as the theorists most considered as important sources for teaching and learning practices. However, the majority of those who interact with children are women, mostly women of color. The importance of gender studies is also highlighted.

Who’s in control? Teachers from five countries share perspectives on power dynamics in the learning environment

This article explores perspectives and strands of thought among teachers from five countries about power dynamics in learning environments, perspectives on power of dominant cultures and impacts of power on concepts of citizenship and social justice. Discourses revealed teachers have some understanding of how power impacts teaching and learning, how language empowers/disempowers students and how teachers and students use their power. Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of power in the learning environment likely shape educational experiences for all stakeholders. Effective empowerment, particularly of students, requires recognition of these and other factors.