Lynn Kirkland

Manipulatives: when are they useful?

Abstract This article examines the usefulness of manipulatives in light of Piagets theory of how children acquire logicomathematical knowledge. It argues that since children construct logicomathematical knowledge through their own thinking, manipulatives are desirable when they encourage children to think (i.e., to make relationships through constructive abstraction) in problem solving. A specific object can therefore be beneficial if used in certain ways but not in others. The same object can also be useful at a certain time in the childs development but not at others. We conclude by pointing out that mathematical relationships do not exist in objects and that children do not acquire these relationships through empirical abstraction from objects.

Fluency in subtraction compared with addition

Abstract Two studies were conducted to understand why subtraction with fluency is harder than addition. In Study I, 33 kindergartners were individually asked to transfer cubes from a glass to an empty bottle, one by one, with one-to-one correspondence with the interviewer. They were then asked if the quantities remaining in the two glasses were the same and if the quantities in the two bottles were the same. In Study II, 21 first-graders and 38 fourth-graders were asked mental-arithmetic questions such as 8+2 and corresponding subtraction questions such as 10−8. By analyzing childrens accuracy and reaction time, it was concluded, in light of Piagets theory, that subtraction is harder than addition because children deduce differences from their knowledge of sums. The educational implication is that we need to deemphasize subtraction in the primary grades and make sure that childrens knowledge of sums is solid.

Teachers' Reflections on Their Practice of Social Studies

n the early twentieth century, John I Dewey (1909/1993) nurtured the seedling notion of the reflective practitioner. In recent years, researchers (Adler 1994; Schon 1987; Zeichner and Liston 1987) have had a renewed interest in reflectivity prototypes and have promoted reflective practice as a means of nurturing teacher development. Reflective practice is a conceptual orientation. It is a way to think about dissonance and to examine observations, problems, conflicting philosophies, belief systems, and ideologies. As an active means of thoughtful consideration, reflection is a persistent search for explanations and alternatives in an attempt to resolve perplexity within an experience (Dewey 1933; Elby 1993).

Learning About Environmental Print Through Picture Books

Children construct knowledge about print from what they see in the environment. They also develop early literacy from good childrens literature. There are now many books which incorporate environmental print, combining both ecological text and the printed page.

Sustaining Resilient Families for Children in Primary Grades

T he adversities that today’s families face are well-documented and staggering (Children’s Defense Fund, 2004). Even in themidst of tough times, however, many families are able to display resilience. Family resilience refers to the coping mechanisms the family uses as a functional unit to recover from life’s setbacks. The purpose of this article is to provide parents and teachers with guidelines for creating resilient families, thereby helping primary-grade children withstand the challenges in their lives. In this article, we will consider what is known about family resilience, examine the role of protective factors and recovery processes, and suggest specific strategies that families and teachers can use to support resilience.

Early Childhood Visual Arts Curriculum: Freeing Spaces to Express Developmental and Cultural Palettes of Mind

C urrently, the field of early childhood education is greatly focused on literacy, numeracy, and assessment, much to young children’s detriment. Policymakers further set the stage for early childhood learners to become formally engaged in academic instruction and often direct administrators and teachers to do the same. Teachers become de-professionalized by this push to hasten children’s learning (Aldridge & Goldman, 2006; Katz, 1993; Kohn, 2001; Ohanian, 1999), which concentrates on cognitive functioning at lower levels, such as emphasizing memorization and fact recall. Placing such pressure on young children solely for academic success results in stifling the vital experience of creative, critical verbal reflection that naturally occurs with youngsters. Such pressures also lead to a movement to create a one-size-fitsall national curriculum (Association for Childhood Education International [ACEI], 2001; Novinger & OBrien, 2003). As these pressures on academics persist, young learners lose vital opportunities to effectively construct meaning and concepts through a developmentally appropriate curriculum of discovery. Developing language and interpreting experiences through social, verbal, emotional, and cognitive interactions within a caring community of learners are characteristics of a young child’s natural experience (ACEI, 2002; National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1996). Children seldom have opportunities to pursue their own interests in activities that allow thought and language development to occur within naturalistic and developmentally appropriate environments (ACEI, 2001; Kohn, 2004). Because aesthetic education, particularly in the visual arts, are commonly absent in early childhood educational settings, the ”push-down” curriculum intensifies. NAEYC‘s 1996 position statement maintains that children thrive when they experience learning in relevant, cultural contexts focused on language development. It further avows that social, physical, emotional, and cognitive growth are interrelated, and their development within a high-quality, caring community of learners results in an appropriate early childhood setting for optimal growth. When young children experience a constructivist, discoveryoriented curricular approach to early education, the whole child is formatively educated (Dewey, 1966). Unfortunately, passive learning appears to be the norm in schools today. Although holistic approaches to learning are crucial to children’s construction of knowledge (Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, 2005), many schools utilize approaches that are programmed and/or isolated from the learning process. It is totally inappropriate and irrelevant to break learning into insignificant parts that are not meaningfully related. Placing pressure on

Increasing Logico-Mathematical Thinking in Low SES Preschoolers

Traditionally, children in low socioeconomic status (SES) inner-city areas in the United States lack experiences that prepare them for academic success, especially in math and science. The purpose of this research was to determine the extent to which a constructivist curriculum emphasizing logical thinking produces higher level thinking in low-SES preschool children. Fifty preschool children participated in the study and were pre- and posttested using Piagetian tasks. Results indicated that 84% of the students in the experimental group progressed at least one level, but only 36% of the control group progressed at least one level. Implications of the study are that implementing higher order thinking activities could result in improved logico-mathematical thinking in low-SES preschoolers.

Teaching Strategies: Environmental Print: Old Notions, but Revalued

As early childhood professionals, we often need to remind ourselves about the value of many ”tried and true” literacy strategies that should not be thrown out, despite critics who believe there is no sound basis for such practices. Environmental print (EP) is one such practice. We define EP as print found in children’s natural environment, which includes logos, labels, road signs, and other print (Kirkland, Aldridge, & Kuby, 2007). Theappropriate time span for using EP ranges from toddlers’ early experiences with literacy to independent reading proficiency, and can particularly benefit special needs learners and English language learners. Those of us whose learning theory is constructivist and who base our teaching practices on a psycholinguistic model of literacy (i.e., we define reading as a meaning-making process) know that children construct their own knowledge about print. Children first learn that words represent objects and about the functions of print. We know that children need to be active participants in their learning and that they need to work with print at their individual levels as they apply logical reasoning to literacy learning (Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1982; Goodman, 1986; Kamii, Manning, & Manning, 1991).

Changing the Face of Summer Programs.

F or many years, school systems have provided remedial opportunities during the summer in an attempt to close the achievement gap beiween their low-performing students and thosestudents reading age-appropriate text. Many of these remedial summer programs utilize the same instructional programs previously used during the school year with the hope that students just need more time on the same tasks to make needed improvements. Research-based evidence indicates that elementary summer school programs can positively affect low-income students’ academic achievement. Cooper, Nye, Chariton, Lindsay, and Greathouse (1996) conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies and found that students completing summer school programs can be expected to score between one-seventh and one-quarter of a standard deviation higher than control groups. Also, summer school attendance benefits low-income students, especially if the program is designed to meet their special needs. An additional advantage of summer school for these students is the protection it can provide against the “summer slide,” one of the terms used to indicate the loss of academic skills and knowledge that students experience over the summer months (Heyns, 1987). Some researchers have posited that nearly 8% of the achievement differences between high-income and low-income students is a result of this summer slide (Hayes & Grether, 1983). The research shows that while students from high-income and low-income homes make similar gains during the school year, a gap develops during the summer, when low-income children have unequal access to literacy events and resources (Allington, 2006). Increases in vocabulary development show similar results, with a widening gap also occurring during the summer. Shin and Krashen (2008) note that students need equal access to books during the summer months in order to make literacy progress. Additionally, Allington (2006) insists that students need the tutelage of expert teachers to maximize summer gains. Suburban areas are not exempt from many of the same problems traditionally faced by inner-city schools. In 2006, for the first time, the number of low-income students in suburban communities surpassed those in inner-city communities (Berube & Kneebone, 2006). In Hoover, Alabama, a suburb of Birmingham, the number of low-income students, as well as English language learners (ELLS), has doubled in the past five years. In an effort to meet the needs of these students, a collaborative effort between the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and the Hoover City School system was initiated. While students from

Children's Books: Inspiring Intermediate Readers

Anyone who has taught intermediate students knows about the incredibly wide range of interests, maturity, and reading ability that is characteristic of children in this age group. Some 4th-graders ...