Lorraine Cale

Self-report measures of children's physical activity: recommendations for future development and a new alternative measure:

Dr Lorraine Cale BSc, MSc, PhD, Lecturer. Division of Sport, Health and Exercise, Staffordshire University, Leek Road, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 2DF. The measurement of physical activity in children has become an important field of interest and challenging enterprise because of its influence on health’. However, methodological problems have impeded research in physical activity epide Miology2 and a numher of researchers have identified the need to improve the assessment of physical activity, particularly among children. In epidemiological studies of physical activity, self-report is the recommended method of assessment4.5 and is probably the most commonly used measure of physical activity. Indeed, a number of major studies have been conducted in Britain which have included an assessment of children’s physical activity levels via self-report methods’-&dquo;. Despite the popularity and widespread use of self-report, however, many investigators have concerns over its accuracy 12-14i. An increasing number of self-report measures are now available and have been used in children’s physical activity research. Some are adult measures which have been used with children, while others have been developed specifically for children. Researchers interested in children’s physical activity need to be familiar with self-report methods and the various measures which are available to them. In this way they will be able to make informed choices in their selection of the best and most appropriate measure to meet their research needs. This article reviews the use of self-report measures of physical activity with children to date, and suggests steps which could be taken to improve these measures in future. The article then presents a new and alternative

Physical Activity Promotion in Secondary Schools

This study investigated the nature and extent of physical activity promotion in a sample of secondary schools in central England. Questionnaires were completed by 42 physical education Heads of Department and questions covered a range of contexts for the promotion of physical activity in schools including the curriculum, the informal curriculum, the environment, community, and school policies and ethos. Results showed that schools varied in the amount and nature of physical activity opportunities they provided. Encouraging curriculum developments were evident in some schools and extra-curricular activities and community links appeared to be thriving in most. However, the environments and policies in many schools were not always conducive to physical activity participation and problems were evident with liaison, finance and INSET. It was concluded that, while most teachers were working hard to promote physical activity in some areas of the school, many other avenues for physical activity promotion were being overlooked.

School-based physical activity interventions: effectiveness, trends, issues, implications and recommendations for practice

The promotion of physical activity within schools and physical education (PE) has attracted growing interest in recent years. Schools have been acknowledged as the primary institution with responsibility for promoting activity in young people and more specifically, school PE has been recognized as having a key role to play. Given this, and based on previous reviews of the findings of formally evaluated interventions, this paper considers the evidence for the effectiveness of school-based physical activity interventions and highlights the key trends and a number of issues concerning their type, target population, design, implementation and content. Earlier reviews have provided comprehensive summaries of the effectiveness of physical activity interventions but they have not provided specific guidance for teachers’ practice in schools. Thus, whilst it is acknowledged that the existing literature is not sufficiently extensive to provide definitive guidelines for schools, this paper considers the implications for practice and presents recommendations for future physical activity programmes, initiatives and interventions.

Fitness testing in physical education – a misdirected effort in promoting healthy lifestyles and physical activity?

Background: Physical fitness testing is commonplace within schools and the physical education (PE) curriculum, with advocates claiming one of the key purposes of testing to be the promotion of healthy lifestyles and physical activity. Despite this, much controversy has surrounded the fitness testing of young people. Purpose: This paper draws on selected findings of a recent ‘fitness testing children feasibility study’ to explore the key issues, concerns and debates regarding fitness testing, as they relate to encouraging a physically active lifestyle. Research design: The feasibility study was commissioned by the National Assembly for Wales and involved two main parts: a comprehensive review of the literature (using metalib) to establish the key findings/issues, and consultation with key ‘stakeholders’ and ‘experts’ to ascertain their views, understanding and experiences of fitness testing children. The consultation was carried out via questionnaires and interviews. Data analysis: The key issues and themes emerging from the literature from 1985 onwards were identified and served as evidence for the debate. The questionnaire and interview data were analysed by quantifying the questionnaire responses and identifying the common issues and themes emerging from the transcripts (and the open items within the questionnaires). These were then used to reinforce, substantiate and illustrate key points. Findings: The findings reveal that the role fitness testing plays in PE in promoting healthy lifestyles and physical activity is questionable and cannot be taken for granted. For example, little evidence was found to support the notion that fitness tests promote healthy lifestyles and physical activity, motivate young people, or develop the knowledge and skills that are important to a sustained engagement in an active lifestyle. Conclusion: Based on the evidence, the paper concludes that much of the fitness testing carried out in PE may well represent a misdirected effort in the promotion of healthy lifestyles and physical activity, and that PE time could therefore be better spent.

‘Every child (of every size) matters’ in physical education! Physical education's role in childhood obesity

The role of schools and physical education in promoting health, producing a ‘healthy nation’ and in tackling obesity has been increasingly recognised in recent years. In England this is evidenced by various policies, strategies and responses from government that have highlighted schools to be instrumental in addressing health broadly and obesity specifically. In addition, individual schools and teachers at the local level appear to be responding to the obesity issue in varied and different ways. However, we and other researchers feel that the discourse surrounding obesity and some of the reports, messages, policies and measures being taken to tackle it are misleading, misguided and could do more harm than good. At the same time, as physical educators committed to the health and development of young people, we feel unable to ignore the issue and compelled to act. We contend that ‘every child of every size matters’ and can benefit from regular engagement in physical education and physical activity and furthermore that, as a profession, we have a responsibility to provide all young people, of all sizes, with meaningful, relevant and positive physical education and physical activity experiences. Given this, we consider what role physical education can and should realistically, sensibly and safely play in addressing childhood overweight and obesity. Firstly, some of the key ‘facts’, issues and debates concerning obesity are explored and the way in which the issue appears to be being addressed in many schools is critiqued. We then briefly summarise some of the formal guidance and recommendations available to schools on obesity, before concluding with some practical recommendations to support physical education teachers in effectively engaging all children in physical activity both within and beyond physical education.

A Review of Children's Fitness Testing.

This review has been prompted by concerns and anecdotal stories about low levels of fitness amongst today’s young people and the possible consequences of this for their current and future health. Solutions to the ‘problem’ have included proposals to fitness test children and to use this information to improve their health status. While there is no doubt that young people’s health and fitness are important issues, the authors consider it equally important that policy-makers and practitioners work from an informed base in order that any actions taken are relevant, meaningful and effective. This article summarizes the literature on children’s fitness testing which was reviewed as part of a feasibility study commissioned by the National Assembly for Wales conducted between October 2003 and March 2004. The specific aim of the study was to determine if there was a need and whether it was cost effective and practical to carry out a research project investigating the fitness levels of Welsh children. A key aspect of the methodology included a comprehensive review of the relevant literature to establish the key findings and issues associated with the fitness testing of children. A worldwide literature search (of papers published in the English language) was carried out using metalib (a multi-database research tool). This article focuses only on the main and consistent findings, trends and issues associated with: physical fitness and the associated health benefits in children, the physical fitness status of children, monitoring children’s physical fitness, and the role of children’s fitness testing in physical activity and fitness promotion.

How healthy is school PE? A review of the effectiveness of health-related physical education programmes in schools

The role of the school in health promotion has become more prominent and there has been an increase in health-related physical education programmes in schools. This paper presents a comprehensive review of such programmes and considers whether and to what extent school physical education contributes to young peoples health. The review suggests that health-related physical education programmes can achieve positive outcomes in physiological, clinical, behavioural, cognitive and affective measures. However, firm conclusions cannot yet be drawn about the effects of health-related physical education programmes on childrens long-term health. The review is encouraging in terms of assimilating health objectives within the primary and secondary school Physical Education curricula.

An Assessment of the Physical Activity Levels of Adolescent Girls ‐Implications for Physical Education

The aim of this study was to provide an estimate of the physical activity levels of a group of 103 adolescent girls aged 11–14. Physical activity was assessed by means of an interview questionnaire. The questionnaire, the Four by One‐Day Recall gathered 4 days of activity information including two school days and a Saturday and a Sunday over a period of 6 months. The information derived enabled estimates of average daily energy expenditure in kcal kg‐1.day‐1, time spent in “moderate” activity and time spent in “vigorous” activity. The physical activity levels of the girls in this study were generally low. Approximately 45% were found to have engaged in no vigorous activity at all over the 4 days. Many participated in some moderate physical activity during the period of the study but a sizeable proportion had done very little. Approximately 30% engaged in a daily average of less than 20 minutes. It was concluded that whilst some girls may have engaged in sufficient physical activity to meet guideline one o...

Interventions to promote young people’s physical activity: Issues, implications and recommendations for practice:

There has been increased interest in the development and implementation of physical activity interventions designed to increase young people’s physical activity participation in recent years. This is perhaps founded on concerns over youngsters’ physical activity levels and the possible health consequences. School-based interventions are the most common form of intervention but, given that the majority of young people’s physical activity occurs outside school, there is now growing recognition of the importance of community-based programmes and the involvement of the community at all levels if interventions are to be effective. Based on previous reviews of the findings of formally evaluated interventions, this article considers the evidence base for the effectiveness of school and community-based physical activity interventions. Despite limitations in the literature, it reveals that physical activity interventions with young people can be effective and achieve positive outcomes. The interventions are discussed and a number of issues and observations are highlighted concerning the programme types, target populations, and their design and implementation. Based on this discussion, a number of recommendations for physical activity promotion practice are then made. The article concludes that, until a stronger evidence base becomes available, health professionals, physical educators and other practitioners should be encouraged to plan, implement and evaluate physical activity programmes for young people and draw on such recommendations to inform their practice.

Exercise recommendations for young people: an update

This paper provides an update on the major developments in exercise recommendations for young people, and in particular, focuses on the most recent guidelines which have been developed in England by the Health Education Authority (HEA). The recommendations are contained within the HEA’s policy framework for the promotion of health‐enhancing physical activity for young people, Young and Active?, which aims to maximise the opportunity for participation in health‐enhancing physical activity. The paper discusses the practical application of the guidelines and provides ideas as to how they can be implemented by physical educators and health professionals. It proposes that the recommendations are more realistic, flexible, appealing and attainable than previous guidelines and that they signal significant progress in the field of exercise prescription for young people. However, cautions and messages highlighted in earlier reviews in the area still hold.