Luc Marti

Adipocytes release a soluble form of VAP-1/SSAO by a metalloprotease-dependent process and in a regulated manner

Aims/hypothesisVascular adhesion protein-1 (VAP-1), which is identical to semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO), is a dual-function membrane protein with adhesion properties and amine oxidase activity. A soluble form of VAP-1 is found in serum, where concentrations are enhanced in diabetes and obesity. In vitro, soluble VAP-1 enhances lymphocyte adhesion to endothelial cells, thus possibly participating in the enhanced lymphocyte adhesion capacity that is implicated in the cardiovascular complications associated with diabetes or obesity. In both, the tissue origin of the soluble VAP-1/SSAO is unknown. We examined whether adipose tissue, which has abundant expression of VAP-1/SSAO, is a source of soluble VAP-1.MethodsWe detected VAP-1/SSAO in plasma of diabetic animals, with or without VAP-1 immunoprecipitation, and in culture medium from 3T3-L1 adipocytes and human adipose tissue explants. VAP-1 protein glycosylation was measured.ResultsDiabetic and obese animals have increased plasma SSAO activity associated with VAP-1 protein. We also found that 3T3-L1 adipocytes and human adipose tissue explants release a soluble form of VAP-1/SSAO, which derives from the membrane. The release of soluble VAP-1 was enhanced by exposure of murine and human adipocytes to TNF-α and blocked by batimastat, a metalloprotease inhibitor. Partial ablation of adipose tissue reduced plasma SSAO activity in normal and diabetic rats.Conclusions/interpretationAdipose cells are a source of soluble VAP-1/SSAO released by shedding of the membrane form. The release of SSAO is regulated by TNF-α and insulin. By releasing VAP-1/SSAO, adipose cells could contribute to the atherogenesis and vascular dysfunction associated with diabetes and obesity.

Substrates of semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase co-operate with vanadate to stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin-receptor-substrate proteins, phosphoinositide 3-kinase activity and GLUT4 translocation in adipose cells

It has been shown that the combination of benzylamine or tyramine and low concentrations of vanadate markedly stimulates glucose transport in rat adipocytes by a mechanism that requires semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) activity and H(2)O(2) formation. Here we have further analysed the insulin-like effects of the combination of SSAO substrates and vanadate and we have studied the signal-transduction pathway activated in rat adipocytes. We found that several SSAO substrates (benzylamine, tyramine, methylamine, n-decylamine, histamine, tryptamine or beta-phenylethylamine), in combination with low concentrations of vanadate, stimulate glucose transport in isolated rat adipocytes. Furthermore, SSAO substrates together with vanadate stimulated the recruitment of GLUT4 to the cell surface in isolated rat adipocytes. Benzylamine plus vanadate also stimulated glucose transport and GLUT4 translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Benzylamine or tyramine in combination with vanadate potently stimulated the tyrosine phosphorylation of both insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-3. In contrast, benzylamine and vanadate caused only a weak stimulation of insulin receptor kinase. Benzylamine or tyramine in combination with vanadate also stimulated phosphoinositide 3-kinase activity; wortmannin abolished the stimulatory effect of benzylamine and vanadate on glucose transport in adipose cells. Furthermore, the administration of benzylamine and vanadate in vivo caused a rapid lowering of plasma glucose levels, which took place in the absence of alterations in plasma insulin. On the basis of these results we propose that SSAO activity regulates glucose transport in adipocytes. SSAO oxidative activity stimulates glucose transport via the translocation of GLUT4 carriers to the cell surface, resulting from a potent tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-3 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase activation. Our results also indicate that substrates of SSAO might regulate glucose disposal in vivo.

Amine oxidase substrates mimic several of the insulin effects on adipocyte differentiation in 3T3 F442A cells.

We have previously reported that substrates of monoamine oxidase (MAO) and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) exert short-term insulin-like effects in rat adipocytes, such as stimulation of glucose transport. In the present work, we studied whether these substrates could also mimic long-term actions of insulin. Adipose differentiation of 3T3 F442A cells, which is highly insulin-dependent, served as a model to test the effects of sustained administration of amine oxidase substrates. Daily treatment of confluent cells with 0.75 mM tyramine (a substrate of MAO and SSAO) or benzylamine (a substrate of SSAO) over 1 week caused the acquisition of typical adipocyte morphology. The stimulation of protein synthesis and triacylglycerol accumulation caused by tyramine or benzylamine reached one half of that promoted by insulin. This effect was insensitive to pargyline (an MAO inhibitor), but was inhibited by semicarbazide (an SSAO inhibitor) and by N-acetylcysteine (an antioxidant agent), suggesting the involvement of the H(2)O(2) generated during SSAO-dependent amine oxidation. Chronic administration of amine oxidase substrates also induced the emergence of adipose conversion markers, such as aP2, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the glucose transporter GLUT4, and SSAO itself. Moreover, cells treated with amines acquired the same insulin sensitivity regarding glucose transport as adipocytes classically differentiated with insulin. In all, most of the adipogenic effects of amines were additive to insulin. Our data reveal that amine oxidase substrates partially mimic the adipogenic effect of insulin in cultured preadipocytes. Furthermore, they suggest that SSAO not only represents a novel late marker of adipogenesis, but could also be directly involved in the triggering of terminal adipocyte differentiation.

Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase activity exerts insulin-like effects on glucose metabolism and insulin-signaling pathways in adipose cells.

Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) is very abundant at the plasma membrane in adipocytes. The combination of SSAO substrates and low concentrations of vanadate markedly stimulates glucose transport and GLUT4 glucose transporter recruitment to the cell surface in rat adipocytes by a mechanism that requires SSAO activity and hydrogen peroxide formation. Substrates of SSAO such as benzylamine or tyramine in combination with vanadate potently stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation of both insulin-receptor substrates 1 (IRS-1) and 3 (IRS-3) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) activity in adipose cells, which occurs in the presence of a weak stimulation of insulin-receptor kinase. Moreover, the acute administration of benzylamine and vanadate in vivo enhances glucose tolerance in non-diabetic and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and reduces hyperglycemia after chronic treatment in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Based on these observations, we propose that SSAO activity and vanadate potently mimic insulin effects in adipose cells and exert an anti-diabetic action in an animal model of type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Tyramine Stimulates Glucose Uptake in Insulin-Sensitive Tissues in Vitro and in Vivo via Its Oxidation by Amine Oxidases

Tyramine and benzylamine have been described as stimulators of glucose transport in adipocytes. This effect is dependent on amine oxidation by monoamine oxidase (MAO) or semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) and on the subsequent hydrogen peroxide formation as already demonstrated by blockade with oxidase inhibitors or antioxidants and potentiation with vanadate. In this work, we extended these observations to skeletal muscle and cardiac myocytes using in vitro and in vivo approaches. Tissue distribution studies showed that substantial extrahepatic peripheral MAO activities exist in kidney and gut, but also in insulin-sensitive tissues: heart, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscles. SSAO activity is also widely distributed and present at a lower level than MAO, except in fat depots where both oxidases were equally involved in tyramine oxidation. When tested in vitro at millimolar doses, tyramine caused a large stimulation of glucose transport in rat adipocytes and in skeletal and cardiac muscles. In vivo administration of tyramine (4 mg/kg i.p.) lowered the hyperglycemic responses to a glucose challenge in control and in streptozotocin-treated rats. This positive effect on glucose disposal was obtained without vanadate and was abolished by SSAO and MAO inhibitors. Tyramine increased hexose uptake in vivo in insulin-sensitive tissues, whereas it induced only transient effects on plasma insulin or cardiovascular parameters. In conclusion, activation of the amine oxidases present in insulin-sensitive tissues induces insulin-like effects, readily detectable in vitro, and increasing peripheral glucose utilization in vivo.

Inhibition of rat fat cell lipolysis by monoamine oxidase and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase substrates

It has been demonstrated that amine oxidase substrates stimulate glucose transport in cardiomyocytes and adipocytes, promote adipogenesis in pre-adipose cell lines and lower blood glucose in diabetic rats. These insulin-like effects are dependent on amine oxidation by semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase or by monoamine oxidase. The present study aimed to investigate whether amine oxidase substrates also exhibit another insulin-like property, the inhibition of lipolysis. We therefore tested the influence of tyramine and benzylamine on lipolytic activity in rat adipocytes. These amines did not modify basal lipolysis but dose-dependently counteracted the stimulation induced by lipolytic agents. The response to 10 nM isoprenaline was totally inhibited by tyramine 1 mM. The blockade produced by inhibition of amine oxidase activity or by 1 mM glutathione suggested that the generation of oxidative species, which occurs during amine oxidation, was involved in tyramine antilipolytic effect. Among the products resulting from amine oxidation, only hydrogen peroxide was antilipolytic in a manner that was potentiated by vanadate, as for tyramine or benzylamine. Antilipolytic responses to tyramine and to insulin were sensitive to wortmannin. These data suggest that inhibition of lipolysis is a novel insulin-like effect of amine oxidase substrates which is mediated by hydrogen peroxide generated during amine oxidation.

High expression of monoamine oxidases in human white adipose tissue : Evidence for their involvement in noradrenaline clearance

The clearance of plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline by human adipose tissue suggests the expression of the catecholamine-degrading enzyme monoamine oxidases and of catecholamine transport systems in adipocytes. In the present study, we identified and characterized the monoamine oxidases and an extraneuronal noradrenaline transporter expressed in human adipocytes. Enzyme assays using the monoamine oxidase A/B substrate [14C]tyramine showed that abdominal and mammary human adipocytes contain one of the highest monoamine oxidase activities in the body. Characterization of the enzyme isoforms by inhibition profiles of [14C]tyramine oxidation and Western and Northern blot analyses showed that mRNAs and proteins related to both monoamine oxidases A and B were expressed in adipocytes. Quantification of each enzyme isoform performed by enzyme assay and Western blot showed that monoamine oxidase A was predominant, representing 70-80% of the total enzyme activity. In uptake experiments, the monoamine oxidase substrate [3H]noradrenaline was transported into white adipocytes (Vmax 0.81+/-0.3 nmol/30 min/100 mg of lipid, Km 235+/-104 microM). The inhibition of [3H]noradrenaline uptake by specific inhibitors indicated that white human adipocytes contain an extraneuronal-type noradrenaline transporter. Competition studies of [14C]tyramine oxidation showed that noradrenaline is metabolized by monoamine oxidases in intact cells. In conclusion, the concomitant expression of monoamine oxidases and of a noradrenaline transporter in human white adipocytes supports the role of the adipose tissue in the clearance of peripheral catecholamines. These results suggest that adipocytes should be considered as a previously unknown potential target of drugs acting on monoamine oxidases and noradrenaline transporters.

Oral Insulin-Mimetic Compounds That Act Independently of Insulin

The hallmarks of insulin action are the stimulation and suppression of anabolic and catabolic responses, respectively. These responses are orchestrated by the insulin pathway and are initiated by the binding of insulin to the insulin receptor, which leads to activation of the receptor’s intrinsic tyrosine kinase. Severe defects in the insulin pathway, such as in types A and B and advanced type 1 and 2 diabetes lead to severe insulin resistance, resulting in a partial or complete absence of response to exogenous insulin and other known classes of antidiabetes therapies. We have characterized a novel class of arylalkylamine vanadium salts that exert potent insulin-mimetic effects downstream of the insulin receptor in adipocytes. These compounds trigger insulin signaling, which is characterized by rapid activation of insulin receptor substrate-1, Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase-3 independent of insulin receptor phosphorylation. Administration of these compounds to animal models of diabetes lowered glycemia and normalized the plasma lipid profile. Arylalkylamine vanadium compounds also showed antidiabetic effects in severely diabetic rats with undetectable circulating insulin. These results demonstrate the feasibility of insulin-like regulation in the complete absence of insulin and downstream of the insulin receptor. This represents a novel therapeutic approach for diabetic patients with severe insulin resistance.

Arylalkylamine vanadium salts as new anti-diabetic compounds.

Vanadium compounds show insulin-like effects in vivo and in vitro. Several clinical studies have shown the efficacy of vanadium compounds in type 2 diabetic subjects. However, a major concern is safety, which calls for the development of more potent vanadium compounds. For that reason different laboratories develop strategies to decrease the therapeutic dose of vanadate. One of these strategies use substrates of semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO)/vascular adhesion protein-1 (VAP-1), a bifunctional protein with amine oxidase activity and adhesive properties implicated in lymphocyte homing at inflammation sites. Substrates of SSAO combined with low concentrations of vanadate strongly stimulate glucose transport and GLUT4 glucose transporter recruitment to the plasma membrane in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and in rat adipocytes. This combination also shows anti-diabetic effects in various animal models of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Benzylamine/vanadate administration generates peroxovanadium locally in pancreatic islets, which stimulates insulin secretion, and also produces peroxovanadium in adipose tissue, thereby activating glucose metabolism in adipocytes and in neighboring muscle. This opens up the possibility of using the SSAO/VAP-1 activity as a local generator of protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors in anti-diabetic therapy. More recently a novel class of arylalkylaminevanadium salts have shown potent insulin-mimetic effects downstream of the insulin receptor. Administration of these compounds lowers glycemia and normalizes the plasma lipid profile in type 1 and type 2 models of diabetes. The combination of different approaches to decrease vanadium doses, among them chelating agents and SSAO substrates, should permit to develop safe and efficient vanadium based agents safe for diabetes treatment.

Understanding the Mechanism of Action of the Novel SSAO Substrate (C7NH10)6(V10O28)·2H2O, a Prodrug of Peroxovanadate Insulin Mimetics

A new vanadium salt, hexakis(benzylammonium) decavanadate (V) dihydrate (C7NH10)6(V10O28)·2H2O ( 1 ), has been synthesized as well as characterized chemically and biologically. An in vitro enzyme assay revealed that compound 1 is oxidized to the same extent as a combination of benzylamine and vanadate by the enzyme semicarbazide‐sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO), and therefore can be considered an SSAO substrate. It also stimulates glucose uptake in isolated rat adipocytes in a dose‐dependent manner. We describe here the results of 51V‐NMR experiments that, combined with the in vitro results, corroborate that compound 1 could act as a prodrug of di‐peroxovanadate ([V(OH)2(OO)2(OH)2]2−) insulin mimetics.