Lynette H. Bikos

The Career Counseling Self-Efficiency Scale: Instrument development and training applications.

This article reports on 4 studies that addressed the development of the Career Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale (CCSES). The instrument evidenced moderate to high internal consistency across the studies and strong test-retest reliability over a 2-week period. Convergent validity was supported by correlations with years of career counseling experience and several scales of an emotional-social counseling self-efficacy measure. Discriminant validity was evidenced through an absence of relations between the CCSES total score and years of emotional-social counseling experience, emotional-social counseling self-efficacy, and research self-efficacy. In addition to the evidence just mentioned, construct validity was supported by increases on the CCSES after a career course and varying levels of efficacy commensurate with status in the field. The use of this instrument for training and evaluating therapists who provide career counseling is discussed.

Enhancing the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy of Upward Bound Students

In 1965, the United States Department of Education appropriated funding for Upward Bound, a program that encourages underprepared, economically disadvantaged high school students to maximize their full academic potential, graduate from high school, and enter postsecondary institutions. Today, 601 Upward Bound programs in the United States serve 48,462 students in the 9th through 12th grades annually (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). The focus of these programs has been on developing academic skills to facilitate

Psychological well-being and sociocultural adaptation in college-aged, repatriated, missionary kids

A growing body of literature suggests that children of international missionaries (missionary kids; MKs) struggle with repatriation and have lower levels of well-being than non-MK peers. Unfortunately, many of these reports provide only frequency or bivariate-level data, fail to report the magnitude of differences or problems, and are not theoretically driven. We responded to these needs with a multivariate comparison of 63 MKs and 63 university students (with no expatriation history) from a Christian university. Results indicated significant differences between the MK and university student samples on measures of psychological well-being and sociocultural adaptation. Moreover, a mediated model, with sociocultural adaptation as a mediator between psychological well-being and MK status, was supported. MK supporters, such as recipient universities, mission-sending organisations, and the Christian fraternity Mu Kappa may be able to assist with some of the sociocultural adaptation challenges identified (e.g. understanding the American perspective, interacting with others, understanding humour).

A Longitudinal, Naturalistic Inquiry of the Adaptation Experiences of the Female Expatriate Spouse Living in Turkey

Using a one-year longitudinal-panel design, 32 American, female, expatriate spouses who relocated to Ankara, Turkey, were interviewed at just-arrived, 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-months stages. This project utilized mixed methods research design. Results of the quantitative, repeated measures component is reported in Bikos et al. (2007, this issue). Results of the Naturalistic Inquiry provided rich, thick descriptions of eight themes as they unfolded through the first year of this expatriate assignment. The resulting themes included predeparture preparation, settling in, impact of expatriation on the wifes life roles, social emotional functioning, approaches to coping, supportive systems, language, and interaction with the host culture. The authors interpreted the results in light of the life role salience and career adaptability constructs of Supers Life-Span, Life-Space approach to career development. In addition, results of this project integrated well with previous research about expatriate spouse adjustment.

A consensual qualitative investigation into the repatriation experiences of young adult, missionary kids

A growing body of literature has documented the repatriation difficulties of children who have spent some portion of their developmental years outside their passport country; this cultural crisis is particularly evident for the repatriated missionary kid (MK). Our study employed a constructivist-interpretivist approach with Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) to interview young adult, repatriated MKs (n = 9) and those who support them (n = 4). CQR analysis of the MK data resulted in three domains (adjusting to the home country, MK identity and personal growth, and support systems) and 16 core ideas which elaborate on those themes. Separate CQR analysis of the MK supporter interviews resulted in four similar domains (adjustment, identity, relationships, support systems) and 16 core ideas. Our results have been useful in better integrating the foregoing research and in providing suggestions for facilitating positive MK repatriation.

First-year adaptation of female, expatriate religious and humanitarian aid workers: a mixed methods analysis

Previous research has demonstrated that international religious workers struggle more than other expatriate groups; our purpose was to investigate these differences. Data were from a larger project where 32 American female expatriate spouses were evaluated at three-month intervals during their first year of expatriation to a Middle Eastern country. Disaggregating the data allowed a comparison of worker outcomes (n = 5) to other expats (n = 25). Results indicated that worker marital satisfaction and global psychological functioning means were lower at most time-in-country intervals. Moreover, normative comparisons, a statistical procedure used to compare worker scores of global psychological functioning to a normative sample of chronically ill medical patients, indicated that worker scores were meaningfully lower at three- and nine-month intervals. In contrast, workers valued marital, parental, occupational, and homemaker life roles more than other expats. A consensual qualitative research analysis provides a longitudinal narrative unfolding of the first-year worker adaptation.

Evaluation of the Positive Re-Entry in Corrections Program A Positive Psychology Intervention With Prison Inmates

Two groups of male inmates (n = 31, n = 31) participated in the Positive Re-Entry in Corrections Program (PRCP). This positive psychology intervention focused on teaching offenders skills that facilitate re-entry into the community. Offenders participated in weekly lectures, discussions, and homework assignments focused on positive psychology principles. The two groups differed in duration of treatment (8 weeks and 12 weeks). Participants completed pre- and post-intervention measures of gratitude, hope, and life satisfaction. Using a 2 × 2 mixed design ANOVA, we hypothesized that the intervention (with two between-subjects levels of 8 and 12 weeks) and duration (with two repeated measures levels of pre and post) of treatment would moderate pre- to post-intervention change. Results indicated significant differences on pre- and post-intervention scores for both groups of offenders on all measures. The analysis did not yield statistically significant differences between groups, demonstrating no additive benefits from the inclusion of four additional sessions, thus saving time and money for correctional programming and funding. This research supports the use of positive psychology in prison interventions.

A Repeated Measures Investigation of the First-Year Adaptation Experiences of the Female Expatriate Spouse Living in Turkey

Using a 1-year longitudinal-panel design, 32 American, female expatriate spouses who relocated to Ankara, Turkey, completed measures of global functioning and were interviewed at just-arrived, 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month stages. Because of the mixed methods approach of this project, results of the Naturalistic Inquiry are reported in a companion manuscript (Bikos et al., 2007, this issue). Differences in the importance and expectation of life roles (i.e., occupational, parent, marital, homecare) were found. Quantitative results indicated no differences in life roles importance, alcohol use, marital satisfaction, or mental health functioning as a function of time-in-country. Analyses do not support the culture shock/U-curve model as a predictable pattern of adaptation. The authors conclude that time-in-country is only one of a myriad of variables that could be used to predict adaptation. Future expatriate research should use models that offer greater complexity.

Psychological functioning of international missionaries: introduction to the special issue

In our constantly shrinking world, it has become increasingly important to understand and negotiate the intricacies of cross-cultural contact. Each year, large numbers of individuals migrate across borders, seeking political stability and economic opportunities. In addition to these permanent cross-cultural sojourners, many others face the challenges of temporarily living cross-culturally for business, political, or religious reasons. While the dynamics of each of these groups overlap because of their common human struggles in living cross-culturally, the groups differ in important ways, including the intended length of stay overseas and the motivations for leaving their countries of origin. The focus of this special issue is on a subgroup of cross-cultural sojourners: international missionaries. International missionaries are, in themselves, a varied group. They come from a number of world religions. They may sojourn overseas for only a few days or for a lifetime. They may be involved primarily in religious proselytising, or primarily in relief or development work. Roughly two-thirds of missionaries are sent from countries outside of North America (Jaffarian, 2007). What they have in common is a religious commitment which influences numerous aspects of their experience, including the motivation to go overseas, adaptation, coping, and repatriation. Consequently, the psychological study of missionaries is a rich source of information on the confluence of psychological factors, religion, and culture. In this special issue of Mental Health, Religion and Culture we bring together a collection of 10 articles that investigate various aspects of the psychological functioning of international missionaries and their families. The collection is topically rich and methodologically diverse. It expands the existing literature about international missionaries, serves as an important launching point for the next generation of research, and can be helpful to organisations and practitioners who support international missionaries and their families. Existing research has largely focussed on missionaries in the Protestant Christian tradition and from English-speaking countries; the articles in this special issue are no exception. An obvious need in ongoing research is the expansion of these findings to missionaries from different faith traditions and from other parts of the world. A hallmark of high-quality research is that it connects well to the work that has preceded it and provides logical next steps for ongoing study. Krathwohl (2009) used

Life Role Salience Dimensions and Mental Health Outcomes Among Female Expatriate Spouses in Turkey

Using life role salience theory, we investigated the extent to which occupational, parental, marital, and home care roles explained mental health outcomes among female expatriate spouses. Participants (N = 86) were from English-speaking Northern American or Western European countries; the average age was 38. Results of a two-way within-subject analysis of variance suggested that the occupational role was least important. In a comparison of role expectations, participants had greater value for (than commitment to) their parental role; the reverse was true for the marital role. Results of a path analysis explained 10% of the variance in psychological distress via a direct path from career role importance (β = .14) and an indirect path from the marital role importance through marital satisfaction (β = −.12). Three paths (parental role importance, β = .14; home care role importance, β = .15; indirectly from marital role importance through marital satisfaction, β = .18) explained 24% of the variance in psychological well-being.