M. B. Cohen

Sensitive Broadband ELF/VLF Radio Reception With the AWESOME Instrument

A new instrument has been developed and deployed for sensitive reception of broadband extremely low frequency (ELF) (defined in this paper as 300-3000 Hz) and very low frequency (VLF) (defined in this paper as 3-30 kHz) radio signals from natural and man-made sources, based on designs used for decades at Stanford University. We describe the performance characteristics of the Atmospheric Weather Electromagnetic System for Observation, Modeling, and Education (AWESOME) instrument, including sensitivity, frequency and phase response, timing accuracy, and cross modulation. We also describe a broad range of scientific applications that use AWESOME ELF/VLF data involving measurements of both subionospherically and magnetospherically propagating signals.

Geolocation of terrestrial gamma‐ray flash source lightning

[1] Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) are impulsive (1 ms) but intense sources of gamma-rays associated with lightning activity and typically detected via low orbiting spacecrafts. We present the first catalog of precise (<30 km error) TGF source locations, determined via ground-based detection of ELF/VLF radio atmospherics (or sferics) from lightning discharges, which enables precise geolocation of lightning locations. We present the distribution of source-tonadir distances, established due to effects of Compton scattering on the escaping photons. We find that TGFs occur in coincidence with the lightning discharge, but with a few ms variance, and that a detectable sferic at long distances is nearly always present. The properties of TGF-associated sferics and their connection to multiple-peak TGFs are highly variable and inconsistent, and are classified into two categories. Citation: Cohen, M. B., U. S. Inan, R. K. Said, and T. Gjestland (2010), Geolocation of terrestrial gamma-ray flash source lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L02801, doi:10.1029/ 2009GL041753.

Confining the angular distribution of terrestrial gamma ray flash emission

[1] Terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) are bremsstrahlung emissions from relativistic electrons accelerated in electric fields associated with thunder storms, with photon energies up to at least 40 MeV, which sets the lowest estimate of the total potential of 40 MV. The electric field that produces TGFs will be reflected by the initial angular distribution of the TGF emission. Here we present the first constraints on the TGF emission cone based on accurately geolocated TGFs. The source lightning discharges associated with TGFs detected by RHESSI are determined from the Atmospheric Weather Electromagnetic System for Observation, Modeling, and Education (AWESOME) network and the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN). The distribution of the observation angles for 106 TGFs are compared to Monte Carlo simulations. We find that TGF emissions within a half angle >30° are consistent with the distributions of observation angle derived from the networks. In addition, 36 events occurring before 2006 are used for spectral analysis. The energy spectra are binned according to observation angle. The result is a significant softening of the TGF energy spectrum for large (>40°) observation angles, which is consistent with a TGF emission half angle (<40°). The softening is due to Compton scattering which reduces the photon energies.

Models of ionospheric VLF absorption of powerful ground based transmitters

[1] Ground based Very Low Frequency (VLF, 3–30 kHz) radio transmitters play a role in precipitation of energetic Van Allen electrons. Initial analyses of the contribution of VLF transmitters to radiation belt losses were based on early models of trans-ionospheric propagation known as the Helliwell absorption curves, but some recent studies have found that the model overestimates (by 20–100 dB) the VLF energy reaching the magnetosphere. It was subsequently suggested that conversion of wave energy into electrostatic modes may be responsible for the error. We utilize a newly available extensive record of VLF transmitter energy reaching the magnetosphere, taken from the DEMETER satellite, and perform a direct comparison with a sophisticated full wave model of trans-ionospheric propagation. Although the model does not include the effect of ionospheric irregularities, it correctly predicts the average total power injected into the magnetosphere within several dB. The results, particularly at nighttime, appear to be robust against the variability of the ionospheric electron density. We conclude that the global effect of irregularity scattering on whistler mode conversion to quasi-electrostatic may be no larger than 6 dB. Citation: Cohen, M. B., N. G. Lehtinen, and U. S. Inan (2012), Models of ionospheric VLF absorption of powerful ground based transmitters, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L24101, doi:10.1029/2012GL054437.

Differing current and optical return stroke speeds in lightning

During the return stroke in downward negative cloud-to-ground lightning, a current wave propagates upward from the ground along the lightning channel. The current wave causes rapid heating of the channel and induces intense optical radiation. The optical radiation wave propagation speed along the channel has been measured to be between 15 and 23 of the speed of light. The current wave speed is commonly assumed to be the same but cannot be directly measured. Past modeling efforts treat either the thermodynamics or electrodynamics. We present the first model that simultaneously treats the coupled current and thermodynamic physics in the return stroke channel. We utilize numerical simulations using realistic high-temperature air plasma properties that self-consistently solve Maxwells equations coupled with equations of air plasma thermodynamics. The predicted optical radiation wave speed, rise time, and attenuation agree well with observations. The model predicts significantly higher current return stroke speed.

Magnetospheric injection of ELF/VLF waves with modulated or steered HF heating of the lower ionosphere

[1] ELF/VLF waves have been generated via steerable HF heating of the lower ionosphere. The temperature‐dependent conductivity of the lower ionospheric plasma enables HF heating (and subsequent recovery) to modulate natural current systems such as the auroral electrojet, thus generating an antenna embedded in the ionospheric plasma. We apply a realistic three‐dimensional model of HF heating and ionospheric recovery, as well as ELF/VLF wave propagation in and below the ionosphere, to derive the radiation pattern into the magnetosphere as a result of steerable HF heating. It is found that modulated HF heating preferentially directs signals upward into space because of the phasing effect of the upward HF wave propagation. We find that the steering techniques such as the geometric modulation “circle sweep” enhances the total ELF/VLF power injected into the magnetosphere by 5–7 dB compared to amplitude modulated heating, with a few dB enhancement in the peak magnetic field value. Another technique known as beam painting enhances the total injected power by 1–3 dB but produces weaker peak magnetic fields due to the power being spread over a larger area. Observations on the DEMETER spacecraft are presented and compared with theoretical predictions. DEMETER observations show that the signal produced with geometric modulation can be stronger than the signal from AM under the same conditions.

On the altitude of the ELF/VLF source region generated during "beat-wave" HF heating experiments

[1] Modulated high frequency (HF, 3–10 MHz) heating of the ionosphere in the presence of the auroral electrojet currents is an effective method for generating extremely low frequency (ELF, 3–3000 Hz) and very low frequency (VLF, 3–30 kHz) radio waves. The amplitudes of ELF/VLF waves generated in this manner depend sensitively on the auroral electrojet current strength, which varies with time. In an effort to improve the reliability of ELF/VLF wave generation by ionospheric heating, recent experiments at the Highfrequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) facility in Gakona, Alaska, have focused on methods that are independent of the strength of the auroral electrojet currents. One such potential method is so-called “beat-wave” ELF/ VLF generation. Recent experimental observations have been presented to suggest that in the absence of a significant D-region ionosphere (60–100 km altitude), an ELF/VLF source region can be created within the F-region ionosphere (150–250 km altitude). In this paper, we use a time-ofarrival analysis technique to provide direct experimental evidence that the beat-wave source region is located in the D-region ionosphere, and possibly the lower E-region ionosphere (100–120 km altitude), even when ionospheric diagnostics indicate a very weak D-layer. These results have a tremendous impact on the interpretation of recent experimental observations. Citation: Moore, R. C., S. Fujimaru, M. Cohen, M. Gookowski, and M. J. McCarrick (2012), On the altitude of the ELF/VLF source region generated during “beat-wave” HF heating experiments, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L18101,

Analysis of magnetospheric ELF/VLF wave amplification from the Siple Transmitter experiment

Controlled experiments with dedicated ground-based ELF/VLF (0.3-30 kHz) transmitters are invaluable in investigating nonlinear whistler mode wave-particle interactions in the Earths magnetosphere. The most productive such experiment operated between 1973 and 1988 near L = 4 at Siple Station, Antarctica. A major effort has been undertaken to digitize and preserve a significant portion of the historical data set from the original magnetic tapes, and we describe here the data set and the processing techniques used to remove artifacts introduced during recording and playback. We analyze a commonly transmitted diagnostic format from 1986 and present statistics on the occurrence and properties of amplified ELF/VLF waves received by a ground-based receiver at the geomagnetic conjugate location to Siple at Lake Mistissini, Quebec. For the interval examined, only 11% of Siple transmissions are successfully received in the conjugate hemisphere with quiet geomagnetic conditions being significantly more conducive to successful reception. The total growth for the events examined is estimated to be 5-40 dB, and nonlinear growth rates are in the range of 20-350 dB/s. The observations show that as the nonlinear growth rate increases, the duration of nonlinear growth decreases. Significant linear correlation is found between the noise floor and the saturation level, with higher noise floors resulting from increases in natural magnetospheric emissions. Finally, we find a lack of correlation between the nonlinear growth rate and the noise, threshold, and saturation levels.

HF beam parameters in ELF/VLF wave generation via modulated heating of the ionosphere

[1] ELF/VLF (0.3–30 kHz) wave generation is achievable via modulated HF (3–30 MHz) heating of the lower ionosphere in the presence of natural currents such as the auroral electrojet. Using the 3.6 MW High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) facility near Gakona, AK, we investigate the effect of HF frequency and beam size on the generated ELF/VLF amplitudes, as a function of modulation frequency, and find that generation in the Earth-ionosphere waveguide generally decreases with increasing HF frequency between 2.75–9.50 MHz. HAARP is also capable of spreading the HF power over a wider area, and we find that a larger beam area yields larger generated amplitudes on the ground. Measurements are shown to generally agree with a theoretical model, which is then applied to also predict the effect of HF beam parameters on magnetospheric injection with HAARP.

ELF/VLF wave generation from the beating of two HF ionospheric heating sources

[1] It is well established that Extremely Low Frequency (ELF, 0.3–3 kHz) and Very Low Frequency (VLF, 3–30 kHz) radio waves can be generated via modulated High Frequency (HF, 3–10 MHz) heating of the lower ionosphere (60–100 km). The ionospheric absorption of HF power modifies the conductivity of the lower ionosphere, which in the presence of natural currents such as the auroral electrojet, creates an ‘antenna in the sky.’ We utilize a theoretical model of the HF to ELF/VLF conversion and the ELF/VLF propagation, and calculate the amplitudes of the generated ELF/VLF waves when two HF heating waves, separated by the ELF/VLF frequency, are transmitted from two adjacent locations. The resulting ELF/VLF radiation pattern exhibits a strong directional dependence (as much as 15 dB) that depends on the physical spacing of the two HF sources. This beat wave source can produce signals 10–20 dB stronger than those generated using amplitude modulation, particularly for frequencies greater than 5–10 kHz. We evaluate recent suggestions that beating two HF waves generates ELF/VLF waves in the F-region (>150 km), and conclude that those experimental results may have misinterpreted, and can be explained strictly by the much more well established D region mechanism.